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CHINA 


AND 

THE  CHINESE: 


A GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF 

THE  COUNTRY  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS:  ITS  CIVILIZATION  AND 
FORM  OF  GOVERNMENT;  ITS  RELIGIOUS  AND  SOCIAL  INSTI- 
TUTIONS; ITS  INTERCOURSE  WITH  OTHER  NATIONS; 

AND  ITS 

PRESENT  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS. 


By  the  Rev.  JOHN  L.  NEVIUS, 


TEN  YEARS  A MISSIONARY  IN  CHINA. 


WITH  A MAP  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


NEW  YORK: 

HARPER  & BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN  SQUARE. 

1872. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1868,  by 
Harper  & Brothers, 

In  the  Clerk’s  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern 
District  of  New  York. 


HELEN  S.  COAN  NEVIUS, 


EVER  MY  MOST 

JUDICIOUS  COUNSELLOR  AND  EFFICIENT  HELPER, 
THIS  VOLUME  IS  INSCRIBED. 


FRF  FA  OF. 


Our  new  relations  with  China,  her  practical  nearness 
to  us,  and  more  especially  the  late  visit  of  the  Chinese 
Embassy,  have  served  to  awaken  a new  interest  in  that 
Empire.  Seldom  have  two  parties  been  suddenly  brought 
together,  who  had  before  so  thoroughly  misunderstood 
each  other  as  have  we  and  the  Chinese.  I have  been  ask- 
ed by  intelligent  scholars  in  China — “Do you  have  schools 
in  your  country?”  When  they  discover  that  we,  whom 
they  have  been  accustomed  to  regard  as  barbarians,  give 
evidence  of  some  degree  of  mental  culture,  and  are  ac- 
quainted with  their  language  and  literature,  the  question 
naturally  arises  in  their  minds — “Do  they  obtain  their  ed- 
ucation in  China;  or  may  they  not  have  schools  in  their 
own  country?”  When  told  that  institutions  of  learning  are 
common  with  us,  the  inference  is  very  apt  to  be — “ Then 
the  people  of  your  honorable  nation  are  also  acquainted 
with  the  books  of  Confucius;”  supposing  that  wherever 
throughout  the  world  there  are  schools,  the  text-books 
must  of  course  be  the  Chinese  Classics,  as  few  of  them 
have  a conception  of  a system  of  instruction  derived  from 
any  other  source. 

This  ignorance  of  other  countries  is  truly  remarkable : 
but  hardly  more  so  than  that  which  exists  among  Western 
nations  with  reference  to  the  Chinese*  I have  been  asked 
by  educated  men  in  the  United  States — “Are  not  the 


(3 


PKEFACE. 


Chinese  a remarkably  dull  and  uninteresting  people  ? Are 
they  susceptible  of  feelings  of  affection  and  gratitude  ? 
Are  you  able  to  develop  their  intellectual  and  moral  per- 
ceptions ; and  have  any  of  them  really  become  true  and 
reliable  Christians  ?” 

The  erroneous  views  which  we  mutually  entertain  of 
each  other  are  due  to  a want  of  reliable  information ; and 
this  want  has  resulted  from  our  wide  separation,  and  our 
infrequent  and  imperfect  intercourse. 

Now  that  China — which  we  have  heretofore  thought  of 
as  situated  in  the  extreme  East,  and  shut  off  from  us  by 
the  intervening  nations  of  Europe  and  Asia — has  become 
our  next  neighbor  on  the  West,  it  is  very  important  that 
we  become  better  acquainted  with  its  inhabitants,  and  that 
we  and  they  should  cultivate  that  mutual  respect  and  sym- 
pathy which  ought  to  characterize  two  great  nations  whose 
interests  and  destinies  are  in  the  future  to  be  so  closely 
united. 

To  promote  this  desirable  end  is  the  principal  object  of 
this  book ; and  if  it  should  in  any  good  degree  subserve 
so  important  a purpose  it  will  require  no  apology  for  its 
publication. 

It  has  been  my  design  to  give  a general  description  of 
China  and  the  Chinese,  rather  than  detailed  information 
on  particular  subjects,  having  special  reference  to  the  re- 
ligious condition  and  wants  of  the  people,  and  the  charac- 
ter and  results  of  the  labors  of  missionaries. 

While  making  occasional  use  of  other  works  on  China, 
I have  depended,  for  the  most  part,  on  my  own  observa- 
tions and  experiences  during  ten  years  of  familiar  inter- 
course with  all  classes  of  the  people,  and  in  different  parts 
of  the  Empire. 

Most  of  the  contents  of  the  chapters  relating  to  the 
prevalent  religions  and  superstitions  are  taken  from  letters 


PREFACE. 


7 


which  I prepared  while  in  China,  which  were  published  in 
“ The  Horae  and  Foreign  Record”  and  the  “ Foreign  Mis- 
sionary.” 

In  quoting  from  the  Chinese  Classics  in  the  third  chap- 
ter, I have  generally  adopted  the  excellent  translation 
made  by  Dr.  Legg  of  Ilong-kong. 

I have  been  careful  not  to  make  statements  of  facts 
without  their  being  well  authenticated;  and  I believe  that 
the  opinions  advanced  in  this  book  will  accord  in  the  main 
with  those  of  other  persons  \^ho  have  had  the  same  oppor- 
tunities for  observation.  * 

John  L.  Neyius. 

Ovid,  N.  Y.,  August,  1868. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE. 

The  word  China  not  Known  by  the  Chinese. — The  Names  they  Use  to  Desig- 
nate their  Country. — General  Resemblance  of  China  to  the  United 
States : in  Position,  Form,  Climate,  Productions,  Natural  and  Artificial 
Divisions,  and  in  Area. — Description  of  the  Walled  Cities  of  China.  The 
Population  of  the  Empire. — Peculiarities  of  Climate,  and  their  Connec- 
tion with  the  Monsoons. — Rivers  and  Natural  Scenery  ....  Page  21 

CHAPTER  II. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  COUNTRY  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS — CONTINUED. 

Travelling. — Roads. — Streets. — Canals. — Boats. — Sculls.  — Mud-slides. — 
Sedans,  or  Kiau-ts. — Burden-hearers. — Beasts  of  Burden. — Mule- 
litters. — Productions  of  the  Soil. — Different  Varieties  of  Teas. — Vegeta- 
bles.— Fruits. — Implements. — The  Threshing-floors  of  Scripture. — The 
Use  of  Fertilizers. — Style  of  Architecture  and  Materials  used. — Fire-walls 
in  Cities. — No  Stoves  in  Northern  Houses. — Artisans. — Business  Men. — 
Order  and  General  Prosperity  31 

CHAPTER  III. 

CONFUCIUS  AND  CONFUCIANISM. 

The  Relation  of  Confucianism  to  the  Chinese  Civilization. — The  name  Con- 
fucius.—His  Character  and  Mode  of  Life. — The  Manner  in  which  he  is 
Regarded  by  the  Chinese. — His  own  Estimate  of  Himself. — Not  the  Orig- 
inator of  a New  System,  hut  the  Propounder  and  Perpetuator  of  an  An- 
cient One. — The  Confucian  Classics. — General  Description  of  the  Con- 
tents.— The  Five  Relations  of  Life. — The  Five  Virtues. — The  Political 
and  Governmental  Feature  of  Confucianism.  — Importance  of  Self- 
government  and  Culture. — General  Estimate  of  Confucius  and  his  Sys- 
tem   46 


10 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

COMPETITIVE  EXAMINATIONS  AND  SCHOOLS. 

The  Chinese  Idea  of  the  Qualifications  of  Officers. — Origin  of  the  Competi- 
tive Examinations. — Classes  of  Persons  excluded. — Two  Preparatory  Ex- 
aminations.— Examination  for  Conferring  the  1st  Degree. — For  Confer- 
ring the  2d  Degree. — 3d  Degree. — Corresponding  Military  Examinations. 
— Various  Advantages  secured  by  the  Literary  Examinations. — The  Po- 
sition and  Influence  of  Literary  Men. — Character  of  Chinese  Schools. — 
Pupils  Commit  to  Memory  whole  Books  without  Understanding  their 
Meaning Page  55 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  CONSTITUTION  OP  THE  CHINESE  GOVERNMENT. 

The  Chinese  Government  Patriarchal. — Titles  of  the  Emperor. — The 
Throne  not  strictly  Hereditary. — Relation  of  the  Emperor  to  his  Officers. 
— The  Cabinet. — The  General  Council. — The  Six  Boards.— Different 
Courts  and  the  Censorate. — The  Imperial  Academy. — Provincial  Gov- 
ernments.— The  Civil  Code. — Practical  Workings  of  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment.— Restraints  brought  to  Bear  upon  the  Emperor,  Officers,  and  the 
People. — The  People  sometimes  Assert  and  Demand  their  Rights. — In- 
surrections and  Rebellions. — Republicanism  of  China. — Village  Elders. 
— Private  Redress. — Family  Feuds 66 

CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA. 

Importance  of  the  Study  of  the  Religions  of  China. — The  Threefold  Divis- 
ion of  their  Religions  by  the  Chinese. — The  words  Religion  and  Sect 
used  in  a Modified  Sense. — Different  Modes  of  Understanding  and  Ap- 
plying the  Chinese  Classification. — The  Plan  adopted  in  this  Book  . 78 

CHAPTER  VII. 

BUDDHISM. 

Introduction  of  Buddhism  into  China. — Its  reputed  Founder. — Different 
Orders  of  Buddhist  Divinities. — Peculiarities  of  Buddhism  as  it  exists 
in  different  Countries. — Popular  Traditions  relating  to  Buddha. — Doc- 
trines and  Religious  Rites  of  Buddhism. —Descriptions  of  Buddhist  Tem- 
ples.— Construction  of  Images. — Particular  Description  of  Temples  and 
Idol  Worship  at  Hang-chow.— Buddhist  Priests. — Organization  of  the 


Monasteries. — Hermits  living  in  Huts  or  Caves. — Priests  confined  in 
Sealed  Rooms  or  Cells.  — Acquiring  of  Merit  by  Proxy.  — Buddhist 
Nunneries 83 


CONTENTS. 


11 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

BUDDHISM CONTINUED. 

Worshipers  in  Buddhist  Temples  principally  Women,  and  why. — Objects 
sought  in  Worship. — Mode  of  seeking  a Response. — Making  of  Vows. — 
Procuring  Drafts  on  Hades. — Forms  of  Worship. — Candles. — Incense. — 
Rosaries. — Social  Intercourse  and  Gossip  in  the  Temples. — Practice  of 
worshiping  Books. — Passport  for  Ilades. — Self-righteous  Character  of 
those  who  frequent  Temples. — Striking  Parallelism  between  Buddhism 
and  Romanism Page  103 

CHAPTER  IX. 

TAEISM. 

Lao-ts,  the  Founder  of  the  Tauist  Sect. — Origin  of  the  word  Tauism. — 
Lao-ts  and  Confucius  contemporaneous. — Change  and  Deterioration  in 
Tauism. — Its  character  Materialistic.— Its  Theory  of  the  Universe. — The 
Five  Elements. — Personification  of  Stars,  and  then-identity  with  some  of 
the  Gods. — Alchemy. — Elixir  of  Life. — Astrology. — Popular  Belief  re- 
specting Lao-ts,  and  the  Origin  of  Tauism.; — Legend  of  Lu-tsu. — Gods  of 
Thunder  and  Lightning. — The  Goddess  Tsn-mu. — The  three  Rulers. — 
The  Dragon  King. — His  Likeness,  how  Obtained. — Inferior  Dragons, 
and  the  “Dragon  Examination.” — Worship  of  the  Dragons. — Descrip- 
tion of  the  Tu-ti  Pusah,  or  “God  of  the  Earth.”— Connection  between 
Tauism  and  State  Worship.— Tauist  Temples,  Idols,  and  Priests. — Ob- 
ject or  Aim  of  the  Tauist  Devotee.— Means  and  bodily  Exercises  made 
use  of. — Animals' may  Attain  to  the  Condition  of  the  Genii. — Worship  of 
Women  in  Tauist  Temples. — Sending  Dispatches  to  the  Spirit  World. — 
Charms,  Spells,  and  Magic. — Moral  Essays  connected  with  Tauism. — 
The  Reason  why  Tauism  is  less  Popular  than  Buddhism 114 

CHAPTER  X. 

NATIONAL  RELIGIOUS  RITES  AND  BELIEFS. 

These  Rites  originated  in  various  Periods,  and  from  various  Sources. — They 
are  Regarded  as  Possessed  of  a Superior  and  Orthodox  Character. — An- 
cestral Worship. — Worship  of  the  Kitchen  God. — State  Worship,  or  that 
performed  by  Officers  in  the  Capital  and  in  the  Provinces. — Worship  of 
Confucius,  and  of  the  God  of  War,  and  the  God  of  literature. — Sacrifices 
to  neglected  Ghosts. — Welcoming  of  the  Spring. — Worship  of  Deified 
Heroes 130 

CHAPTER  XI. 

MUTUAL  RELATIONS  AND  INFLUENCES  OF  THE  RELIGIOUS  SYSTEMS  OF  CHINA. 

Partial  and  Imperfect  Character  of  the  Knowledge  derived  from  Natural  Re- 
ligion.— Moral  more  clearly  Apprehended  than  Religious  or  Spiritual 


12 


CONTEXTS. 


Truth. — Buddhism  and  Tauism  attempt  to  Supply  the  Defects  of  Con' 
fueianism. — Special  Characteristics  and  Relations  of  these  Systems. — 
Religious  Views  of  the  People  vague  and  chaotic. — The  three  Systems 
generally  Regarded  as  Supplementary  to  each  Other. — Approximate  Es- 
timate of  the  Number  of  Idol  Temples  in  China. — Description  of  differ- 
ent Kinds  of  Sacrifices  and  Offerings. — The  Doctrines  and  Practices  of 
Idolatry  perversions  of  great  Truths. — Answer  to  the  question,  “Have 
the  Chinese  any  idea  of  one  Supreme  Deity  ?” — General  character  of  Chi- 
nese Idolatry  as  compared  with  that  of  other  Countries. — Evidences  of 
Discontent  with  Idolatry. — Encouraging  Facts,  and  the  Duty  of  tiie 
Church Page  118 

CHAPTER  XII. 

SUPERSTITIOUS  NOTIONS  RESPECTING  SPIRITS,  AND  THE  SCIENCE  OF  FUNG- 
SIIWUY,  OR  GEOMANCY. 

Sources  of  Superstitions  relating  to  Spirits. — Character  and  Operations  of 
Spirits  called  Yau-kwei. — Notions  respecting  the  Disembodied  Spirits 
of  Men. — Familiar  Spirits,  and  Communications  with  the  Spirit  World 
through  a Medium. — Written  Communications  from  Spirits,  Spirit-ra]  - 
pings,  etc. — Character,  Importance,  and  Uses  of  the  mysterious  Science 
called  Fung-shwuy. — It  has  its  own  Literature,  and  its  Doctors,  or  Ex- 
pounders.— General  Prevalence  and  Influence  of  this  Superstition. — Dif- 
ficulties and  Family  Quarrels  growing  out  of  it. — An  Incident  illustrating 
the  Existence  and  Importance  of  Fung-shwuy. — Fung-shwuy  as  applied 
to  House-building.. — Rearrangement  of  Houses  sometimes  made  Neces- 
sary.— Complaints  against  Foreigners  for  Disregarding  Fung-shwuy,  and 
a Case  in  Illustration. — Means  of  attracting  Good  Luck. — Means  of  ward- 
ing off' Evil  Influences. — Fung-shwuy  as  connected  with  the  Construction 
of  Canals  and  Bridges 162 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

DIFFERENT  MODES  OF  DIVINATION. 

Importance  of  the  Eight  Diagrams. — Translation  of  part  of  a Preface  of  the 
Chinese  work  “ Source  of  True  Divination.” — Mode  of  Divining  by  Dia- 
grams.— Mode 'JF' Divining  by  means  of  the  Eight  Characters. — An  in- 
dividual Case  in  Illustration. — Divination  by  Astrology. — Illustrative 
official  Document. — Fortune-telling  by  the  Use  of  Birds,  Snakes,  and 
Turtles. — Telling  the  Fortunes  of  past  and  future  States  of  Existence. — 
Manner  in  which  Failures  are  accounted  for. — Physiognomy  and  Palm- 
istry.— Choosing  of  “Lucky  Days.” — Effects  of  being  Born  under  certain 
Stars. — Divination  by  Dreams  . 179 


CONTENTS. 


13 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE  LANGUAGES  OF  CHINA. 

The  want  of  Analogy  between  the  Chinese  and  other  Languages. — Each 
Word  represented  by  a Separate  Character. — The  Language  not  Hiero- 
glyphic.— The  whole  Number  of  Characters. — The  Language  Monosyl- 
labic.— The  Written  Language  unintelligible  to  the  Ear,  and  not  capable 
of  being  Used  as  a Spoken  Language. — An  Explanation  of  this  Fact.- — 
Tones  and  Aspirates. — Explanation  of  apparent  Inconsistencies. — The 
Spoken  Languages  of  China,  and  their  Relations  to  the  Written. — The 
Number  of  the  Spoken  Languages  or  Dialects,  and  the  Extent  to  which 
they  Differ. — In  what  these  Differences  consist. — More  numerous  in  the 
South  than  in  the  North. — Description  of  the  Mandarin  or  Court  Dia- 
lect.— Chinese  Mode  of  Printing. — How  much  Time  does  it  require  to 
learn  the  Chinese  Language? — What  Proportion  of  the  Population  can 
read  ? — Excellences  and  Defects  of  the  Language Page  1‘JI 

CHAPTER  XV. 

BENEVOLENT  INSTITUTIONS  OF  CHINA. 

The  Origin  of  these  Institutions,  and  the  Distinction  between  Them  and 
Those  in  Christian  Lands. — Orphan  Asylums. — Asylums  for  Old  Men. — 
Asylums  for  Animals. — Institutions  for  the  Relief  of  Widows. — Free 
Schools.— Chinese  Dispensaries. — Institutions  for  Collecting  old  Paper, 
etc. — Society  for  the  Suppression  of  Immoral  Books. — Beggars. — A Be- 
nevolent Society  embracing  a variety  of  Objects. — Various  Benefactions 
and  Modes  of  securing  Merit 213 

CHAPTER  XVI.. 

THE  MORAL  TRACT  LITERATURE  OF  CHINA. 

The  Literature  of  China  various  and  extensive. — The  Relation  of  Moral 
Tracts  to  the  Chinese  religious  Systems. — Different  kinds  of  Tracts. — 
Table  of  Contents  of  “Light  in  the  Dark  Dwelling.” — Motives  to  which 
the  Distribution  of  Tracts  is  due. — The  Work  is  done  by  Individuals  and 
not  Societies. — These  Works  evidence  the  Teachings  of  Natural  Relig- 
ion, and  the  Necessity  of  a Superior  Revelation. — Translations  of  “ Ode 
on  Emptiness,”  “Ode  on  Discontent,”  and  Treatise  on  “Rewards  and 
Punishments.”  — Tracts  presented  to  Gods. — Their  Influence  on  the 
People. — Our  Encouragements  and  Discouragements  in  distributing 
Christian  Tracts 226 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

SOCIAL  CUSTOMS,  ETC. 

The  Family  Tie  strong  in  China. — Minute  Distinctions  of  Relationships. — 
The  Position  of  Women  in  China. — Chinese  Politeness. — Hospitality. — 


14 


CONTENTS. 


Costumes. — The  Queue.— Small  Feet  of  Women. — Chinese  Houses. — 
Food  and  Mode  of  Eating. — The  Use  of  Tea. — Chinese  Wine. — The  Use 
of  Tobacco. — General  Want  of  Cleanliness. — Betrothals  and  Marriages. 
—Polygamy. — Infanticide. — Slavery. — Funerals. — Coffins. — Graves  and 
Grave-yards. — The  extravagant  and  burdensome  Expenses  of  Chinese 
Weddings  and  Funerals Page  237 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

NATIONAL  FESTIVALS,  CUSTOMS,  AND  AMUSEMENTS. 

The  Chinese  Divisions  of  Time. — Number  and  Variety  of  Festivals  and  An- 
niversaries.— Welcoming  of  Spring. — The  Customs  and  Festivals  con- 
nected with  the  New  Year. — The  “Feast  of  Lanterns.” — “Festival  of 
the  Tombs.” — The  Season  of  flying  Kites. — Idolatrous  Processions. — 
Chinese  Theatres. — Their  Connection  with  Idolatry. — How  Conducted. 
— Character  of  the  Plays  and  Actors. — Puppet  Shows. — Gambling. — 
Public  Fasts  enjoined  by  official  Proclamations. — Common  Practice  of 
• using  Obscene  Language 257 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

GENERAL  ESTIMATE  OF  THE  CHINESE  CHARACTER  AND  CIVILIZATION. 

Opinions  generally  Entertained  of  the  Chinese. — The  Impressions  we  have 
Made  upon  Them. — Difficulties  in  the  way  of  Obtaining  reliable  Infor- 
mation in  the  Foreign  Communities  at  the  open  Ports.— National  Pe- 
culiarities of  Chinese  Temperament  and  Character. — Evidence  of  In- 
tellectuality in  the  Chinese. — The  Manner  in  which  they  are  Regarded 
by  other  Eastern  Nations. — They  have  taken  the  Lead  in  many  of  the 
Practical  Arts. — Many  of  their  Peculiarities  due  to  Education  rather 
than  to  Differences  of  Race.— Morality  of  the  Chinese. — Opinions  which 
we  have  mutually  Entertained  of  each  other  in  this  Respect,  and  the 
Reasons  for  Them. — A Look  at  ourselves  through  Chinese  Glasses. — 
Facts  illustrating  the  better  side  of  Chinese  Character. — The  injurious 
Effects  apprehended  by  some  from  speaking  well  of  a Heathen  Peo- 
ple   275 


CHAPTER  XX. 

INTERCOURSE  OF  WESTERN  NATIONS  WITH  CHINA. 

Isolation. — Antiquity  and  Chronology. — Early  Reference  to  China  in  Greek 
and  Roman  History.- — A Jewish  Colony  in  Kai-fung-foo.— The  Nestori- 
ans  and  their  Labors. — Marco  Polo. — Early  Romish  Missions. — First 
War  with  England,  and  the  Opening  of  the  Five  Treaty  Ports  in  1842. 
— Events  which  lad  to  the  last  War  with  England  and  France,  and  to 
the  Treaties  which  are  now  in  force. — Our  present  Relations  . . . 293 


CONTENTS. 


15 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

MISSIONARY  LIFE  IN  CHINA. 

A Sea-voyage  a good  Preparation  for  Missionary  Life. — First  Impressions  on 
Shore. — Novelty  succeeded  by  Monotony. — Longing  for  Home. — Mis- 
sionary Houses,  Mode  of  Living,  Salaries,  Servants,  etc. — Importance  of 
Female  Laborers. — Married  and  Unmarried  Missionaries. — The  Study 
of  the  Language  with  a Native  Teacher. — A Missionary  may  be  Useful 
from  the  very  first. — Housekeeping  and  a Missionary’s  Home  as  an  im- 
portant Centre  of  Influence. — Chapels  and  Chapel  Preaching. — Itinera- 
tions in  the  Interior. — The  great  Difficulty  of  communicating  Christian 
Truth  in  a Heathen  Language. — Distribution  of  Tracts,  and  the  Manner 
in  which  they  are  received. — The  natural  Effect  of  a correct  Apprehen- 
sion of  the  true  Character  of  the  Gospel Page  314 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

DIFFERENT  METHODS  AND  AGENCIES  EMPLOYED  IN  MISSIONARY  WORK. 

The  great  Mission  of  the  Christian  Church. — The  Character  of  the  Work 
the  same  now  as  in  the  Times  of  the  Apostles. — Advantages  and  Dis- 
advantages peculiar  to  different  Times. — Auxiliary  and  preparatory 
Agencies. — The  Work  of  the  Medical  Missionary. — The  Scripture  Idea 
of  Preaching. — The  Question  of  adopting  the  native  Costume. — The 
Importance  of  Mission  Schools. — Error  of  applying  Principles  drawn 
from  one  Field  to  another  and  different  one. — Objections  to  English 
Schools  as  Missionary  Agencies. — The  Use  of  the  Press. — Character 
and  Use  of  Tracts. — The  Sphere  of  the  Bible  in  the  Work  of  Missions. 
— The  Importance  of  feeding  the  Flock. — The  Necessity  of  training  Na- 
tive Christians  to  Habits  of  Activity  and  Independence. — The  Impor- 
tance of  raising  up  and  training  a Native  Ministry,  and  the  Difficulties 
attending  this  Work  in  China 33G 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

RESULTS  OF  MISSIONARY  WORK. 

Unfavorable  Reports  respecting  the  Work  of  Missionaries,  and  their  inju- 
rious Effects. — The  Unreliableness  of  these  Reports,  and  the  Manner  in 
which  they  originate. — The  true  Character  of  the  Missionary  Work,  and 
the  Difficulties  attending  it. — Detailed  and  Statistical  Accounts  of  differ- 
ent Mission  Stations  not  attempted. — Much  has  been  accomplished  in 
necessary  Preparation  for  the  direct  Work  of  preaching  the  Gospel. — Ef- 
fects produced  by  the  general  Diffusion  of  Christian  Truth  among  the 
Masses. — Ripe  Fruits. — The  Classes  from  which  the  first  Converts  are 
usually  drawn,  and  the  Means  by  which  they  are  brought  into  the 
Churchy-Illustrative  Experiences  of  Individuals  and  Families. — The 


16 


CONTENTS. 


Influence  of  Native  Converts  of  both  Sexes  in  building  up  Native 
Churches. — The  Work  of  Native  Preachers  in  the  Out-stations. — Gen- 
eral Statistics  of  the  Results  of  Missions  in  China. — Special  Reference 
to  the  Growth  of  Churches  at  Ningpo  and  in  the  Ports  recently  opened. 
- — Remarkable  Work  in  Lao-ling Page  350 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 

CHARACTER  AND  EXPERIENCES  OF  NATIVE  CHRISTIANS  AND  INQUIRERS. 

Comparative  Absence  of  pungent  Convictions  of  Sin  in  Chinese  Converts, 
and  a Reason  for  it. — The  Apathy  of  the  Chinese  with  Respect  to  Death 
is  removed  by  a Knowledge  of  Christianity. — Experience  of  Teacher 
Du. — Disadvantages  and  Compensations  in  the  Condition  of  Chinese 
Christians.— Their  Simplicity  of  Faith. — Their  Views  of  Prayer. — Go- 
ing up  into  a Mountain  to  pray. — Mercenary  Inquirers. — “Stony- 
ground”  Hearers. — Disappointed  Expectations. — The  Buddhist  Devo- 
tee ofTsi-hia. — The  Case  of  one  who  was  almost  persuaded  to  be  a 
Christian. — Temptations  and  Defections  of  Church  Members. — Differ- 
ences and  Estrangements  among  Christians. — Temptations  overruled 
for  Good. — Experience  of  two  Native  Preachers. — Difference  of  Views 
with  Reference  to  the  Admission  of  Inquirers  to  full  Church  Member- 
ship.— Cases  of  Discipline,  and  their  comparative  Frequency. — Trials 
and  Temptations  of  Native  Christians. — Eating  Food  offered  to  Idols. — 
Complicity  with  Idol  Worship  in  other  Ways. — Difficulties  connected 
with  the  strict  Observance  of  the  Sabbath. — Experience  of  Deo-vu  Ali- 
san. — Standard  of  Sabbath  Observance  in  our  Out-stations. — The  His- 
tory and  Character  of  Jun-kao  379 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  MISSIONS  IN  CHINA. 

The  Manner  in  which  the  early  Missionaries  of  Rome  gained  an  Entrance 
into  the  Chinese  Empire. — Their  Compromise  of  the  Truth,  and  the 
Controversies  and  Dissensions  between  different  Religious  Orders. — Sec- 
ular Employments. — The  Mode  of  prosecuting  their  Missionary  Work. — 
Character  of  the  Missionaries. — Statistics  of  Missionary  Results. — Their 
Improvement  of  the  Advantages  of  the  late  Treaties. — Character  of  the 
Native  Christians. — A Reference  to  the  Religious  Literature  of  the  Church 
of  Rome  in  China. — The  Excellences  and  Defects  of  the  System. — Its 
probable  Influence  on  the  Future  of  the  Empire 406 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 

THE  TAI-PING  REBELLION. 

The  Interest  which  has  been  felt  by  Western  Nations  in  the  Tai-ping  Re- 
bellion.— Early  Life  of  Hung-sew-tswen. — He  receives  the  Bible  and 
Tracts  from  Missionaries. — His  Sickness  and  fancied  Revakttions. — His 


CONTENTS. 


17 


Attention  is  directed  anew  to  the  Christian  Books. — He  constructs  from 
them  a new  System  of  Religion,  commences  propagating  it,  and  gains 
many  Converts. — The  Steps  by  which  the  Adherents  of  this  corrupt 
Form  of  Christianity  became  an  Insurgent  Army. — The  long  Struggle 
for  Empire,  and  the  final  Defeat  and  Overthrow  of  the  Tai-ping  Rebel- 
lion   Page  417 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

PRESENT  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS  OF  THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE. 

The  Present  of  China  a Period  of  Transition. — Her  Aversion  to  Change. — 
Various  Causes^conspiring  to  introduce  a new  Order  of  Things.— -Gener- 
al Principle  of  Development  and  Decline. — The  History  of  China  a Suc- 
cession of  Dynasties. — -Local  Insurrections  and  Rebellions. — Influences 
brought  to  bear  upon  China  from  foreign  Lands. — Wars  with  England 
and  France. — The  necessary  Effect  of  a Knowledge  of  the  Modern  Arts 
and  Sciences,  and  of  Christianity. — The  Influence  upon  China  of  the 
Chinese  who  return  Home  from  California. — The  Government  adopts 
Western  Rules  of  International  Law. — Chinese  Youths  studying  For- 
eign Languages  with  a View  to  being  Interpreters. — The  Policy  of  the 
Empire  principally  influenced  by  the  Exigencies  of  her  present  Position, 
and  the  Advice  of  Foreign  Ministers  and  Employe's  in  Pekin. — A Uni- 
versity for  teaching  the  Modern  Sciences  has  been  established. — The 
Origin,  Character,  and  Results  of  the  Chinese  Embassy. — The  Party  of 
Progress,  and  the  Objects  for  which  they  are  striving. — The  present 
Status  of  Missionaries. — China  irrevocably  committed  to  Reform  and 
Progress  . ....  428 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

CONCLUSION. 

The  Presence  and  Agency  of  Christ  among  the  Nations.- — He  rules  the 
World  in  the  Interest  of  the  Church. — Different  Influences  conspire  to 
prepare  the  Way  for  the  Establishment  of  His  spiritual  Kingdom.— The 
Responsibility  of  the  Church  in  the  present  Juncture. — Evidences  of  low 
and  unscriptural  Views  with  Regard  to  Missions. — The  true  Standard 
of  Christian  Duty 444 


APPENDIX 


451 


- - r*  .r2  ^ 

■ 

, 

- 


ILL  USTRA  TIONS. 


PAGE 

map  of  ciiina To  face  page  21 

PART  OF  THE  WALL  OF  PEKIN 25 

WC-CIIANG 30 

CANAL  SCENE  NEAR  SOO-CHOW 32 

TRADING  JUNK 34 

MODE  OF  CARRYING  BURDENS  BY  ONE  PERSON 35 

TWO  MEN  CARRYING  A PRESENT  OF  A LARGE  JAR  OF  SPIRITS 36 

GENTLEMAN  RIDING  IN  A SEDAN,  WITH  SERVANT  ON  FOOT 36 

CART  DRAWN  BY  BULLOCKS,  OR  MULES,  OR  HORSES,  OR  BY  THESE 

THREE  DIFFERENT  ANIMALS  TOGETHER 39 

IRRIGATION  BY  MEANS  OF  AN  ENDLESS  CHAIN-PUMP 41 

• 

FISHING  WITH  CORMORANTS 43 

FAC-SIMILE  OF  CASH  COINED  BY  THE  LAST  EMPEROR,  HIEN-FUNG 44 

FAC-SIMILE  OF  ANCIENT  COIN,  COINED  DURING  THE  HAN  DYNASTY 45 

LITERARY  UNDER-GRADUATE,  OR  STUDENT 57 

MILITARY  CANDIDATES  COMPETING  WITH  BOW  AND  ARROW Cl 

A CHINESE  CIVIL  OFFICER  IN  FULL  DRESS 69 

GATEWAY  OF  BUDDHIST  TEMPLE  NEAR  CANTON 87 

THE  THREE  PRECIOUS  ONES 90 

A DEPARTMENT  OF  THE  BUDDHISTIC  HELL. 91 

PAGODA \ 92 

BUDDHIST  PRIEST 98 

BUDDHIST  NUN  WITH  CAP  AND  ROSARY 101 

CASTING  LOTS 104 

LUE-KUNG,  GOD  OF  THUNDER 119 

THE  THREE  PURE  ONES 120 

ANCESTRAL  TABLET  REPRESENTING  ONE  PERSON 131 

GOD  OF  THE  KITCHEN 134 

TRADITIONAL  LIKENESS  OF  CONFUCIUS 139 

KWAN-TI,  CHINESE  GOD  OF  WAR 140 

PART  OF  A PROCESSION  IN  HONOR  OF  SPRING,  IN  JVIIICH  A MOCK  BUF- 
FALO IS  CARRIED  THROUGH  THE  STREETS 142 


20 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

WRITING  WITH  A FORKED  PEN  AN  ORACLE  ON  SAND 1G8 

FORTUNE-TELLING  BY  MEANS  OF  A BIRD  AND  SLIPS  OF  PAPER 189 

DIFFERENT  STYLES  OF  WRITING  AND  PRINTING  CHINESE  CHARACTERS.  207 
HONORARY  STONE  PORTAL  TO  THE  MEMORY  OF  VIRTUOUS  AND  FILIAL 

widows 217 

MAN  WITH  BASKETS  GATHERING  LETTERED  PAPER 219 

LARGE  OR  NATURAL-FOOTED  WOMAN  AT  FU-CHOW 242 

APPEARANCE  OF  A SMALL  SHOE  ON  THE  FOOT 243 

PART  OF  A BRIDAL  PROCESSION  EN  ROUTE  TO  THE  HOUSE  OF  THE 

BRIDEGROOM  ON  THE  WEDDING-DAY 248 

BRIDE  AND  BRIDEGROOM  WORSHIPING  THE  TABLETS  OF  HIS  DECEASED 

ANCESTORS 250 

PREPARATIONS  FOR  THE  NEW  YEAR 2G0 

HAPPINESS 2G3 

MANOEUVRING  THE  DRAGON 2G4 

BOAT  CARRIED  IN  PROCESSION  ON  MEN’S  SHOULDERS 267 

WEARING  THE  CANGUE  AS  A TOKEN  OF  GRATITUDE 2G8 

BOY  DRESSED  LIKE  A FEMALE  IN  ACTING  A THEATRICAL  PLAY 272 

CAPTURE  OF  THE  PEIIIO  FORTS 303 

KWEILIANG,  FIRST  IMPERIAL  COMMISSIONER 30G 

IIWASHANA,  SECOND  “ “ 307 

"signing  of  the  treaty  of  tien-tsin 311 

PRINCE  RUNG 441 


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YORK  . HARPER.  A BROTHERS 


China  and  the  Chinese. 


- CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OP  THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE. 

The  word  China  not  Known  by  the  Chinese. — The  Names  they  Use  to  Des- 
ignate their  Country. — General  Resemblance  of  China  to  the  United 
States  : in  Position,  Form,  Climate,  Productions,  Natural  and  Artificial 
Divisions,  and  in  Area. — Description  of  the  Walled  Cities  of  China. — The 
Population  of  the  Empire. — Peculiarities  of  Climate,  and  their  Connec- 
tion with  the  Monsoons. — Rivers  and  Natural  Scenery. 

The  word  China  is  at  present  unknown  in  the  empire 
which  we  call  by  that  name.  It  was  no  doubt  introduced  in 
the  West  from  the  nations  of  Central  Asia,  who  in  speaking 
of  the  Chinese  use  the  terms  Jin,  Chin,  Sin,  Sinae,  and  Sinistae. 
These  names  were  probably  derived  from  the  powerful  Tsin 
family,  tvhich  held  sway  over  the  north-western  part  of 
China  as  early  as  770  b.c.  ; and  obtained  the  government 
of  the  whole  empire  250  years  b.c.  The  early  prominence 
of  this  name  in  that  part  of  the  country  which  was  first  reach- 
ed by  the  routes  of  Western  traders  strongly  confirms  the  view 
now  generally  adopted  by  commentators,  that  the  Chinese  are 
specifically  referred  to  in  the  forty-ninth  chapter  of  Isaiah — 
“ Behold,  these  shall  come  from  far ; and  lo,  these  from  the 
North  and  from  the  West:  and  these  from  the  land  of 
Sinim.” 

The  names  which  the  Chinese-lj|pe  in  speaking  of  them- 
selves are  various.  The  most  common  one  is  Chung  Kioofi, 


22 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


“ Middle  Kingdom the  term  “ middle  ” signifying  not  only 
that  they  are  the  geographical  centre  of  the  world,  but  also 
the  centre  of  light  and  civilization.  Another  name  is  Chung 
Hwa-Kwoh — “ Middle  Flowery  Kingdom ft  flowery  ” pre- 
senting the  idea  of  beautiful,  cultivated,  refined.  The  terms 
Tien-Hwa-lCwoh  and  Tien-  Chao — “ Heavenly  Flowery  King- 
dom,” and  “ Heavenly  Dynasty  ” — are  sometimes  used,  the 
word  “ heavenly  ” presenting  the  Chinese  idea  that  the  em- 
pire is  established  by  the  authority  of  heaven,  and  that  the 
Emperor  rules  by  divine  right.  This  title  has  given  rise  to 
the  contemptuous  epithet  applied  to  this  race  by  Europeans— 
“ The  Celestials.”  They  also  speak  of  themselves  as  Tien - 
Ida  ” — “ Under  Heaven  ” — that  is,  “ the  world.”  The  particu- 
lar title  of  the  reigning  dynasty  is  often  used,  as  at  present  Ta- 
Tsing-Kwoh , the  “ Kingdom  of  the  Great  Tsin  Dynasty.” 

In  giving  a correct  general  idea  of  China  to- Western  na- 
tions, I can  not,  perhaps,  do  better  than  to  institute  a compari- 
son between  it  and  the  United  States,  to  which  it  bears  a 
striking  resemblance.  It  occupies  the  same  position  in  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere  that  the  United  States  does  in  the  West- 
ern. Its  line  of  sea-coast  on  the  Pacific  resembles  that  of  the 
United  States  on  the  Atlantic,  not  only  in  length  but  also  in  con- 
tour. Being  found  within  almost  the  same  parallels  of  lati- 
tude, it  embraces  the  same  varieties  of  climate  and  produc- 
tions. A river  as  grand  as  the  Mississippi,  flowing  east,  di- 
vides the  empire  into  two  nearly  equal  parts,  which  are  often 
designated  as  “ North  of  the  River,”  and  “ South  of  the  River.” 
It  passes  through  an  immense  and  fertile  valley,  and  is  sup- 
plied by  numerous  tributaries  having  their  rise  in  mount- 
ain ranges  on  either  side,  and  also  in  the  Himalayas  on  the 
west. 

The  area  of  China  proper  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the 
organized  states  of  the  American  Union.  The  resemblance 
holds  also  in  the  artificial  divisions.  While  our  country  is 
divided  into  more  thai^fhirty  states,  China  is  divided  into 
eighteen  provinces  ; this  division  furnishing  still  another  name 


RESEMBLANCE  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES, 


23 


for  the  empire,  in  common  use,  Shih-pah-seng — “ The  Eight- 
een Provinces.”  These  provinces  are  on  an  average  about 
twice  as  large  as  our  states.  As  our  states  are  divided  into 
counties,  so  eacli  province  has  about  ten  divisions,  called  Fa  ; 
and  each  Fa  is  again  divided  into  about  an  equal  number  of 
Jlien.  These  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the  provinces  are 
generally  translated  in  English  departments,  or  prefectures, 
and  districts.  In  this  work  I shall  use  the  Chinese  terms  and 
their  English  equivalents  interchangeably.  The-above-mention- 
ed  divisions  and  subdivisions  are  much  larger  than  our  corre- 
sponding counties  and  townships.  While  the  empire  has  its 
capital  at  Pekin,  so  each  province,  Fu  and  Hien,  has  its  capi- 
tal or  seat  of  civil  power,  in  which  the  officers  exercising  ju- 
risdiction over  it  reside.  While  our  national  name,  United 
States,  covers  not  only  the  states,  but  the  comparatively 
sparsely-populated  territories,  so  the  Chinese  Empire  includes, 
in  addition  to  the  eighteen  provinces,  or  China  proper,  Man- 
churia Mongolia,  Sungaria,  Eastern  Turkistan,  Koko-nor,  and 
Thibet.  The  most  of  these  territories  belonged  originally  to 
the  present  Tartar  rulers  of  China,  and  after  the  subjugation 
of  the  eighteen  provinces  were  united  with  them  in  the  satne 
empire.  The  whole  circumference  of  the  empire  is  about 
12,000  miles,  and  the  whole  area  about  5,000,000  of  square 
miles — nearly  twice  that  of  the  United  States,  exclusive  vif  the 
lately-acquired  Russian  Possessions.  When  we  speak  of 
China  without  specifications  we  refer  to  the  eighteen  prov- 
inces exclusively,  which  include  the  vast  proportion  of  the 
population,  wealth,  and  intelligence  of  the  empire. 

Here  the  parallel  between  the  United  States  and  China 
leases,  and  in  nearly  every  point  of  comparison  we  have  a 
decided  contrast.  The  capitals  of  the  different  divisions  of 
the  empire  are  all  walled  cities.  These  form  a striking  feat- 
ure of  the  country.  There  are  important  distinctions  be- 
tween the  cities  of  the  third  class,  most  of  which  are  designated 
by  the  character  Ilien,  a few  by  the  character  Cheo,  and  a few 
by  the  character  Ting,  which  need  not  here  be  particularly  de- 


24 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


scribed.  Though  varying  considerably  in  size,  these  different 
cities  present  nearly  the  same  uniform  appearance.  They  are 
surrounded  by  walls  from  twenty  to  thirty-five  feet  in  height, 
and  are  entered  by  large  arched  gateways,  which  open  into 
the  principal  streets,  and  are  shut  and  barred  at  night.  These 
walls  are  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  thick  at  the  base, 
and  somewhat  narrower  at  the  top.  The  outside  is  of  solid 
masonry  from  two  to  four  feet  thick,  built  of  hewn  stone,  or 
bricks  backed  with  earth,  broken  tiles,  etc.  There  is  gener- 
ally a lighter  stone  facing  on  the  inside.  The  outside  is  sur- 
mounted by  a parapet  with  embrasures,  generally  built  of 
brick.  The  circumferences  of  the  provincial  cities  vary  from 
eight  to  fifteen  English  miles ; those  of  the  Fa  cities  from 
four  to  ten ; and  those  of  the  Ilien  cities  from  two  or  three 
t j five.  Some  of  the  larger  and  more  important  cities  contain 
a smaller  one,  with  its  separate  walls,  enclosed  within  the 
larger  outside  wall.  This  is  the  Tartar  or  military  city.  It 
is  occupied  exclusively  by  Tartars  with  their  families,  Arming 
a colony  or  garrison,  and  numbering  generally  a few  tens  of 
thousands,  including  military  officers  of  different  grades.  In 
times  of  insurrection  and  rebellion  the  Emperor  depends  prin- 
cipally upon  these  Tartar  colonies  to  hold  possession  of  the 
cities  where  they  are  stationed.  In  such  emergencies  the  in- 
habitants of  these  enclosed  Tartar  cities,  knowing  that  their 
lives  and  the  lives  of  their  families  are  at  stake,  sometimes 
defend  themselves  with  great  desperation. 

The  provincial  capitals  contain  an  average  population  of 
about  1,000,000  inhabitants,  the  Fu  cities  from  100,000  or 
less  to  600,000  or  800,000,  while  the  cities  of  the  third  class, 
which  are  much  more  numerous,  generally  contain  several  tens 
of  thousands.  The  most  of  these  towns  of  different  classes 
have  outgrown  their  walls,  and  you  sometimes  find  one-fourth 
or  even  one-third  of  the  inhabitants  living  in  the  suburbs, 
which  in  some  cases  extend  three  or  four  miles  outside  the 
walls  in  different  directions.  Property  is  less  valuable  in 
these  suburbs,  not  only  because  it  is  removed  from  the  busi- 


CHINESE  WALLED  CITIES. 


25 


I'AET  or  THE  WALL  OF  TEKIN. 

ness  parts  of  the  city,  but  also  because  it  is  more  liable  to  be 
destroyed  in  times  of  anarchy  and  rebellion. 

All  the  names  to  be  found  on  our  largest  maps  of  China 
are  the  names  of  walled  cities,  and  many  of  those  of  the  third 
class  are  not  down  for  want  of  space.  The  whole  number  in 
the  aggregate  is  over  1700.  Supposing  them  to  have  an  av- 
erage circumference  of  four  miles  each,  the  whole  length  of 
wall  such  as  has  been  described  would  be  6800  miles,  nearly 
one-third  the  circumference  of  the  globe.  If  we  add  to  this 
the  1500  miles  of  continuous  wall  separating  China  from 
Chinese  Tartary  m the  North,  it  will  swell  the  estimate  to 
more  than  8000  miles. 

The  above  engraving  of  a part  of  the  wall  of  Pekin  will 
give  a very  good  idea  of  the  appearance  of  Chinese  cities 
generally,  as  seen  in  the  distance,  with  .their  watch-towers 
and  guard-houses,  and  the  moat  outside  the  wall.  The 
camels  represented  in  the  engraving  are  very  rarely  seen  in 
the  south  of  China.  The  reader  may  in  imagination  substi- 
tute in  their  place  pack-mules  and  donkeys  for  most  of  the 
cities  of  Northern  China,  and  men  bearing  burdens  and  se- 
dans for  the  cities  of  the  South. 

From  the  number  and  size  of  the  cities  of  China  it  might 
be  inferred  that  they  contain  the  great  proportion  of  the  in- 

B 


26 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


habitants  of  the  empire.  This  is,  however,  by  no  means  the 
case.  The  Chinese  are  mainly  an  agricultural  people,  and  live 
for  the  most  part  in  the  almost  innumerable  villages  which 
everywhere  dot  its  fertile  plains.  You  seldom  see  a detached 
or  isolated  farm-house.  The  country  people  live  in  towns  and 
hamlets  for  the  sake  of  society  and  mutual  protection.  Most 
of  the  cities,  even  the  smaller  ones,  have  thousands  of  these 
villages  under  their  jurisdiction.  In  the  more  populous  parts 
of  China  you  will  generally  find,  within  a circumference  of 
three  or  four  miles  radius,  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  two 
hundred  of  these  villages,  some  of  the  larger  of  them  rivalling 
the  smaller  walled  cities  in  population  and  wealth. 

It  is  not  strange  that  the  question  respecting  the  population 
of  China  lias  excited  a great  deal  of  interest.  The  most  re- 
liable information  tve  have  on  this  subject  is  the  Chinese 
census  of  1812,  which  there  is  no  good  reason  for  discredit- 
ing. This  census  estimates  the  population  of  the  eighteen 
provinces  at  360,000,000.  Should  we  adopt  these  figures  as 
reliable,  we  must  regard  the  actual  number  of  the  present  in- 
habitants of  China  as  not  far  from  400,000,000. 

The  mere  statement  of  this  number  fails  to  convey  to  the 
mind  a clear  conception  of  the  reality  which  it  expresses.  A 
better  idea  of  the  population  may  be  obtained  by  comparison. 
The  one  nation  of  China  contains  nearly  one-third  of  the 
whole  human  race.  Its  inhabitants  are  about  equal  in  num- 
ber to  those  of  all  the  kingdoms  of  Europe  and  of  North  and 
South  America  combined.  Any  one  of  the  more  populous  of 
the  eighteen  provinces  contains  a population  nearly  equal  to 
that  of  the  largest  nations  of  Europe  or  of  the  United  States. 
These  statements  seem  incredible  at  first  sight,  but  a little 
consideration  will  show  that  there  is  in  them  no  inherent  im- 
probability, while  personal  observation  and  inquiry  tend  to 
confirm  their  truth. 

The  Chinese  census,  above  referred  to,  only  gives  an  average 
population  of  about  three  hundred  persons  to  the  square  mile, 
while  that  of  England  and  Belgium  is  greater.  Now  perhaps 


THE  POPULATION  OF  THE  EMPIRE. 


27 


no  country  in  the  world  is  more  fertile  and  capable  of  sup- 
porting a dense  population  than  China.  Every  available  spot 
of  ground  is  brought  under  cultivation,  and  nearly  all  the  land 
is  made  use  of  to  provide  food  for  man,  pasture-fields  being 
almost  unknown.  The  masses  of  China  eat  very  little  animal 
food.  What  they  do  eat  is  mostly  pork  and  fowls,  the  raising 
of  which  requires  little  or  no  waste  of  ground.  The  compara- 
tively few  horses  and  cattle  and  sheep  which  are  found  in  the 
country  are  kept  in  stables,  or  graze  upon  the  hill-tops,  or  are 
tethered  by  the  sides  of  canals.  Taking  these  facts  into  con- 
sideration, that  an  extended  and  exceedingly  fertile  country, 
under  the  highest  state  of  cultivation,  is  taxed  to  its  utmost 
capacity  to  supply  the  wants  of  a frugal  and  industrious  peo- 
ple, and  the  statement  that  it  contains  as  dense  a population 
as  three  hundred  to  the  square  mile  need  excite  no  wonder 
or  incredulity. 

An  independent  proximate  estimate  of  the  population  of 
China  may  be  made  from  the  basis  of  its  cities.  A few  years 
since,  nineteen  contiguous  cities  were  visited  by  two  mission- 
aries from  Ningpo.  One  of  these  contained  300,000  inhabit- 
ants; ten  of  them  from  50,000  to  100,000;  and  eight  from 

10.000  to  20,000.  The  average  population  would  be  about 

60.000  each.  If  this  tour  had  extended  a few  days’  journey 
to  the  north,  it  would  have  included  the  cities  Shao-hing  and 
Hang-chau,  the  former  containing  about  800,000  and  the  lat- 
ter 1,000,000  inhabitants,  which  would  have  raised  the  average 
not  a little.  Taking  60,000,  however,  as  the  average  for  the 
cities  of  the  Chekiang  province,  and  reducing  the  general 
average  of  the  empire  from  60,000  to  40,000,  we  will  have  for 
the  cities  of  China  alone  68,000,000.  But  we  find  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  each  city  a number  of  large  villages  rivalling 
it  in  population.  If  we  assume  that  the  larger  unwalled 
towns,  to  the  number  of  one-tenth  of  the  whole,  contain 
double  the  population  of  the  cities,  we  will  have  for  the 
population  of  the  cities  and  a small  fraction  of  the  unwalled 
towns  200,000,000.  Regarding  the  almost  innumerable  vil- 


28 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


lages  as  containing  only  the  same  population  as  the  cities, 
ancl  a few  of  the  larger  villages,  and  we  reach  the  result  of 
400,000,000,  for  the  whole  population.  This  estimate  makes 
no  pretensions  to  accuracy,  but  is  intended  to  show  how 
consistent  the  Chinese  census  is  with  facts,  and  how  difficult 
it  would  be  to  fix  upon  any  lower  figures. 

Every  thing  you  see  in  China  conveys  the  same  impression 
of  a country  overburdened  with  a population  which  swarms 
about  you  wherever  you  go.  The  fields  are  everywhere  full 
of  laborers  ; in  the  mountainous  districts  you  will  see  scores 
of  terraces,  rising  one  above  another  to  the  height  of  500  or 
1000  feet,  and  the  hills  cultivated  in  many  places  to  their  very 
tops.  Pedestrians  are  everywhere  seen  in  the  roads  and  by- 
paths, the  rivers  and  numerous  canals  are  filled  with  boats, 
and  a great  variety  of  busy  artisans  ply  their  crafts  in  the 
noisy  streets  of  the  cities  and  villages. 

The  peculiarities  of  climate  along  the  Chinese  coast  are 
due  in  a great  measure  to  the  northern  and  southern  mon- 
soons, the  former  prevailing  with  more  or  less  uniformity 
during  the  winter  and  the  latter  during  the  summer  months. 
These  winds  give  a greater  degree  of  heat  in  summer  and  of 
cold  in  winter  than  is  experienced  in  the  United  States  in 
corresponding  latitudes.  At  Ningpo,  situated  in  latitude 
thirty-one — about  that  of  New  Orleans — large  quantities  of  ice 
are  secured  in  the  winter  for  summer  use.  It  is,  however, 
seldom  more  than  an  inch  in  thickness.  In  this  part  of  China 
snow  not  unfrequently  falls  to  the  depth  of  six  or  eight  inches, 
and  the  hills  are  sometimes  covered  with  it  for  weeks  in  suc- 
cession. In  the  northern  provinces  the  winters  are  very 
severe.  In  the  vicinity  of  Pekin,  not  only  are  the  canals  and 
rivers  closed  during  the  winter,  but  all  commerce  by  sea  is 
suspended  during  two  or  three  months ; while  in  the  summer 
that  part  of  China  is  very  warm,  producing  sweet  potatoes, 
peaches,  and  grapes  in  abundance.  The  period  of  the  change 
of  the  monsoon,  when  the  two  opposite  currents  are  struggling 
with  each  other,  is  marked  by  a great  fall  of  rain,  and  by  the 


PECULIARITIES  OP  CLIMATE. 


29 


cyclones  which  are  so  much  dreaded  by  mariners  on  the 
Chinese  coast.  The  southern  monsoon  gradually  loses  its  force 
in  passing  northward,  and  is  not  very  marked  above  thirty  or 
thirty-two  degrees  of  latitude,  though  its  influence  is  decided- 
ly felt  in  July  and  August.  With  the  exception  of  the  sum- 
mer months,  the  climate  of  the  northern  coast  of  China  is  re- 
markably dry;  that  of  the  southern  coast  is  damp  most  of 
the  year,  especially  during  the  months  of  May,  June,  and  July. 

In  different  parts  of  the  country  almost  every  variety  of 
climate  may  be  found,  hot  or  cold,  moist  or  dry,  salubrious  or 
malarious.  The  ports  which  until  recently  have  been  exclusive- 
ly occupied  as  places  of  residence  by  Europeans  have  unfor- 
tunately been  among  the  most  insalubrious  of  the  empire,  not 
so  much  from  the  enervating  effects  of  their  southerly  lati- 
tudes as  from  their  local  miasmatic  influences,  being  situated 
in  the  rice-producing  districts,  and  surrounded  more  or  less  by 
stagnant  water  during  the  summer  months.  Under  the  treaty 
of  I860,  which  opened  new  ports  in  the  north  and  the  interior, 
we  have  access  to  climates  which  will  compare  favorably  with 
most  parts  of  our  own  country. 

The  eighteen  provinces  present  every  conceivable  variety 
of  landscape- — comprising  valleys  and  alluvial  plains,  high  ta 
ble-lands,  and  regions  noted  for  wild  and  picturesque  mount 
ain  scenery.  It  is  finely  watered  by  numerous  rivers.  To  say 
nothing  of-streams  of  less  note, the  River  Yiang-ts  flows  through 
its  entire  length  from  west  to  east,  and,  receiving  many  tribu- 
taries from  the  northern  and  southern  ju'ovinces,  bears  on  its 
bosom  the  commerce  of  more  than  150,000,000  of  people.  It 
passes  through  a very  rich  and  populous  region,  and  presents 
to  the  traveller  natural  scenery  of  varied  beauty,  and  numerous- 
unfamiliar  objects  curious  and  picturesque. 

Several  ports  on  this  river  are  now  open  to  foreign  com- 
merce, and  vessels  drawing  more  than  twenty  feet  of  water 
and  from  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  feet  long, 
are  clearing  from  the  port  of  Han-kao,  six  hundred  miles  in 
the  interior,  for  London,  Liverpool,  and  New  York. 


30 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


In  the  front  of  the  accompanying  engraving,  and  opposite  the 
large  city  Wu  chang,  which  is  seen  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
“ Great  Iliver  ” in  the  distance,  is  the  site  of  the  foreign  set- 
tlement in  Han-kow.  Han-kow  being  a kind  of  suburb  of  Wu- 
chang, and  having  no  wall  around  it,  is  not  found  on  any  of 
the  maps  of  China ; though  it  has  a population  probably  not 
less  than  300,000.  In  the  map  accompanying  this  book  the 
name  of  the  city  is  incorrectly  spelled  Y u-chang. 


WL- C1IANG. 


THE  GREAT  IMPERIAL  CANAL. 


31 


CHAPTER  II. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OP  THE  COUNTRY  AND  ITS  INHABITANTS CON- 

TINUED. 

Travelling. — Roads. — Streets. — Canals. — Boats. — Sculls. — Mud-slides.- — 
Sedans  or  Kiau-ts. — Burden-bearers. — Beasts  of  Burden. — Mule-lit- 
ters.— Productions  of  the  Soil. — Different  Varieties  of  Teas. — Vegeta- 
bles.-— Fruits. — Implements. — The  Threshing-floors  of  Scripture. — The 
use  of  Fertilizers. — Style  of  Architecture  and  Materials  used. — Fire- 
walls in  Cities. — No  Stoves  in  Northern  Houses. — Artisans. — Business 
Men. — Order  and  General  Prosperity. 

The  modes  of  travelling  vary  greatly  in  different  parts  of 
the  empire.  In  many  of  the  provinces,  especially  along  the 
coast  and  in  the  south,  canals  take  the  place,  for  the  most  part, 
of  roads.  The  great  Imperial  Canal,  stretching  from  Hang- 
chau,  in  Central  China,  to  Pekin,  a distance  of  six  hundred 
miles,  is  often  referred  to  by  writers  on  China  as  one  of  the 
greatest  of  public  works  in  any  country,  and  as  a striking  evi- 
dence of  the  wisdom  of  the  government  and  vast  resources 
of  the  empire.  This,  however,  is  but  one  of  the  main  arter- 
ies of  canal  communication,  and  its  length  is  insignificant  in 
comparison  with  the  aggregate  length  of  the  other  canals  of 
the  empire.  I hav£  no  doubt  that  its  length  is  equalled,  if 
not  exceeded,  by  that  of  the  canals  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
some  of  the  individual  departmental  or  Fa  cities.  In  the 
vicinity  of  Ningpo  the  country  is  supplied  with  a complete 
net-work  of  them,  often  intersecting  each  other  at  distances 
of  one  or  two  miles,  of  less.  Farmers  frequently  have  short 
branch  canals  running  off  to  their  houses,  and  the  farm-boat 
takes  the  place  of  the  farm-cart  or  wagon.  Heavy-loaded 
passage  and  freight  boats  are  seen  plying  in  every  direction. 
The  ordinary  rate  of  charge  for  passage,  at  the  highest  esti- 
mate, would  be  less  than  one-half  of  a cent  per  mile.  A boat 


32 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


nals,  or  winding  about  among  the  unfenced  fields.  In  Central 
and  Southern  China  the  streets  of  the  cities  are  not  much 
wider  than  the  paths  in  the  country,  their  width  varying  from 
five  to  ten  or  fifteen  feet. 

The  canals  are  generally  from  twenty  to  forty  or  fifty  feet 
in  width.  The  boats  in  them  are  from  four  to  eight  feet 
wide,  and  from  twenty  to  thirty  or  more  in  length.  They 
are  propelled  for  the  most  part  by  a scull  of  a peculiar  con- 


manned  by  two  persons,  and  of  such  size  that  ten  Chinamen 
think  they  can  sleep  comfortably  in  it,  may  be  chartered  for 
one  dollar  a day,  and  will  accomplish  within  the  twenty-four 
hours  a distance  of  from  forty  to  seventy  or  more  miles. 

In  sections  of  the  country  where  canals  are  so  numerous 
the  roads  are  simply  foot-paths,  sometimes  hardly  wide  enough 
for  persons  to  meet  without  one  of  them  stepping  off  the  flag- 
stones, by  which  they  are  almost  invariably  paved.  These 
roads  or  paths  are  found  running  along  the  banks  of  the  ca- 


CANAL  SCENE  NEAR  SOO-CIIOW. 


BOATS  IN  CHINA. 


o o 
oo 


struction,  by  which  the  strength  of  the  boatman  is  applied 
most  effectively  and  economically. 

This  scull  is  seldom  straight,  has  generally  abroad  blade,  and 
turns  upon  a pivot  in  the  stern.  The  upper  end  of  it  is  at- 
tached to  the  bottom  of  the  boat  by  a rope  which  the  boatman 
seizes  with  his  right  hand,  the  left  being  laid  on  the  scull  han- 
dle. These  boats  in  different  parts  of  the  empire  present  an 
almost  endless  variety.  A traveller  in  crossing  a river  and  hir- 
ing one  in  the  canal  on  the  opposite  side  is  often  surprised  to 
see  the  marked  change  in  the  construction  and  style,  not  only  of 
the  boat,  but  of  all  its  appointments. 

While  sculls  are  justly  preferred  in  most  parts  of  China, 
sweeps  or  oars  are  occasionally  seen. 

Among  the  numerous  kinds  of  boats  in  different  places,  there 
is  one  belonging  exclusively  to  the  city  of  Shao-hing,  but  some- 
times found  hundreds  of  miles  away  from  home,  which  merits 
a special  reference.  It  is  called  by  the  natives  Kyiah-ioo-jun — 
“ Foot-propelled  boat.”  It  resembles  a canoe,  and  is  made  to 
carry  one  passenger  with  a little  baggage.  The  hull  is  general- 
ly decorated  with  landscape  paintings.  A thick,  bent  bamboo 
matting  covers  the  top,  and  while  it  protects  the  traveller  from 
sun  and  rain,  obliges  him  to  keep  a recumbent  position  except 
when  one  of  the  mats  is  removed.  The  boatman  sitting  in  the 
stern,  which  is  only  about  a foot  and  a half  wide,  and  bracing 
his  back  against  a board,  propels  his  little  craft  in  a very  pecul- 
iar way  with  a foot-oar,  and  guides  it  with  a paddle. 

It  is  so  crank  that  the  passenger  must  be  careful  in  moving 
for  fear  of  upsetting  it.  This  may  be  called  the  dispatch-boat 
of  China.  One  boatman  will  sometimes  ply  the  oar  for  sixteen 
or  more  hours  with  very  little  intermission,  changing  constant- 
ly from  one  foot  to  the  other.  I have  known  one  of  them  to 
stop  for  a moment  at  an  eating-house,  procure  a bowl  of  rice 
and  one  of  vegetables,  resume  his  seat,  put  the  two  bowls  on 
one  hand,  the  two  chop-sticks  in  the  other,  one  foot  on  the  car, 
and  the  paddle  under  his  arm  to  steer  by,  and  so  proceed  on 
his  journey  and  enjoy  his  dinner- at  the  same  time.  In  the 

B 2 


34 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


forty  men  turn  the  windlasses.  The  boat  is  gradually  drawn 
up  the  inclined  plane,  is  poised  for  a moment  on  the  top,  then 
the  bow  droops,  and  it  slides  down  the  other  side  into  the  wa- 
ter, sometimes  with  a velocity  which  occasions  serious  acci- 
dents. 

The  bridges  crossing  the  canals  are  very  numerous.  Gen- 
erally stone  abutments  approach  each  other  from  opposite 
sides,  leaving  a vacant  space  between  them  of  about  twelve 
feet  which  is  covered  by  heavy  stone  slabs.  Arched  bridges, 
however,  and  some  of  them  very  beautiful,  are  frequently  seen 
spanning  the  canals  and  -smaller  rivers.  Boats  are  often 


rivers  are  larger  boats,  while  the  junks  will  compare  in  carry- 
ing capacity  with  our  sea-going  vessels. 

In  the  Che-kiang  province,  in  passing  through  the  canals 
from  one  elevation  to  another,  use  is  made  of  mud-slides , which 
take  the  place  of  locks  in  our  own  country.  On  either  side  of 
this  slide,  or  inclined  plane,  is  a windlass  with  large  cables  of 
twisted  bamboo.  A noose  on  the  end  of  the  cable  is  placed 
round  the  stern  of  the  boat  on  either  side,  and  from  twenty  to 


DIFFERENT  MODES  OF  CARRYING  BURDENS. 


35 


tracked  or  towed  by  the  boatmen  on  shore,  and  sails  are 
hoisted  when  the  wind  is  favorable. 

In  the  coast  provinces  of  Central  and  Southern  China,  where 
canals  are  so  numerous,  vehicles  and  beasts  of  burden  and 
draught  are  almost  unknown.  In  the  mountainous  districts 
passengers  and  goods  are  carried  by  men,  passengers  in  a se- 
dan or  palanquin  by  two  men,  and  baggage  and  freight  by 
single  coolies,  the  burden  being  divided  and  suspended  from 
the  opposite  ends  of  a strong  elastic  pole,  the  middle  of  which 
rests  upon  the  shoulder.  Two  sedan-bearers  will  carry  a man  of 
ordinary  size,  with  twenty  or  thirty  pounds  of  baggage,  twenty 
miles  in  a day  ; and  a coolie,  with  more  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds  burden,  will  perform  the  same  journey,  though 
requiring  a little  more  time.  The  hardy  mountaineers,  whose 
muscles  have  been  develojied  by  years  of  this  kind  of  labor, 
will  carry  a burden  five  or  ten  miles  in  a day  weighing  more 
than  three  hundred  pounds. 


MODE  OF  CARRYING  DURDENS  BY  ONE  PERSON. 


!:D  □ 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


TWO  MEN  CARRYING  A PRESENT  OF  A LARGE  JAR  OF  SPIRITS. 


GENTLEMAN  RIDING  IN  A SEDAN,  WITH  SERVANT  ON  FOOT. 


The  above  engravings  illustrate  the  three  modes  of  carrying 
burdens  so  common  in  China.  The  last  one  represents  the 


THE  PRODUCTIONS  OF  CHINA. 


37 


sedan  and  its  attendants  when  just  about  to  start,  or  when 
the  bearers  are  about  so  set  the  sedan  down.  The  third 
bearer  is  an  extra  one  or  relay,  who  walks  by  the  side  of  the 
sedan,  takes  his  turn  in  carrying  it,  and  assists  in  placing  it 
upon  the  shoulders  of  the  other  two,  and  in  putting  it  down. 
The  attendant  in  a long  gown  is  the  gentleman’s  body-serv- 
ant, who  carries  and  presents  his  employer’s  cards,  and  waits 
upon  him  as  he  has  occasion  to  require  his  services.  When 
the  bearers  are  in  motion,  they  take  a long  rapid  stride,  which 
carries  them  about  four  and  a half  miles  an  hour.  When 
there  are  but  two  of  them  they  generally  stop  every  mile  or 
two.  They  employ  these  few  moments  of  rest  in  smoking, 
chatting,  and  perhaps  taking  a glass  of  wine.  When  the 
traveller  is  in  a hurry  he  often  adds  “icine  money which  ac- 
celerates his  progress  greatly. 

When  the  burden  to  be  carried  is  very  heavy,  such  as  large 
stones,  logs,  etc.,  it  is  divided  and  distributed  by  larger  and 
smaller  poles,  so  as  to  be  borne  by  ten,  fifteen,  twenty,  or 
more  men. 

In  those  portions  of  the  empire  where  canals  are  impracti- 
cable, as  is  the  case  in  a large  part  of  the  province  of  Shan- 
tung, beasts  of  burden  are  numerous,  principally  mules  and 
donkeys,  which  are  imported  from  Manchuria  in  large  droves. 
On  the  plains  a rude  kind  of  cart  is  used ; and  in  the  more 
mountainous  districts  goods  'are  carried  on  pack-mules  and 
donkeys,  and  passengers  in  mule-litters.  The  mules  used  for 
the  latter  purpose  are  very  fine,  and  will  walk  in  a long  sum- 
mer’s day  from  fifty  to  sixty  miles,  the  drivers  keeping  pace 
with  them.  In  the  north  of  China  the  streets  of  the  cities  are 
wide  enough  to  admit  the  passage  of  wheeled  vehicles.  • 

The  productions  of  China,  as  before  intimated,  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  United  States.  Sugar-cane  is  grown  in  large 
quantities  in  the  southern  provinces;  rice  and  tobacco  and 
cotton  in  the  southern  and  central ; winter  wheat,  millet,  and 
sorghum  in  the  central  and  northern  ; and  maize  or  Indian 
corn  in  all  the  provinces.  Sorghum  is  called  in  this  country 


38 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


the  Chinese  sugar-cane,  though  as  far  as  I can  learn  it  is  not 
used  for  its  saccharine  properties  in  any  part  of  the  empire. 

Rice  is  the  great  staple  for  food  in  the  south,  and  millet  in 
the  north.  The  cotton  produced  in  the  south  supplies  the 
vast  proportion  of  the  population  with  clothing ; and  it  is  all 
spun  and  woven  by  the  women,  the  Chinese  being  entirely  ig- 
norant of  modern  machinery  of  every  kind.  Tea  is  produced' 
in  the  central  and  southern  provinces.  The  differences  in  the 
varieties  are  due  partly  to  the  soil  and  climate  of  different  lo- 
calities ; partly  to  the  time  when  the  leaf  is  plucked ; but 
principally  to  the  mode  of  curing  or  preparing  it  for  the  for- 
eign market. 

The  vegetables  of  China  are  numerous,  including  many  va- 
rieties with  which  we  are  not  familiar.  The  sweet  potato  is 
found  in  all  the  provinces.  The  Irish  potato  has  been  until  re- 
cently unknown,  and  is  now  little  valued  by  the  natives.  Car- 
rots, turnips,  leeks,  and  garlic  are  very  common,  also  cucum- 
bers, water-melons,  and  musk-melons.  Peas  are  cultivated  to 
some  extent,  and  beans  in  great  varieties  and  large  quantities. 
In  the  north  of  China  beans  take  the  place  of  oats  with  us,  as 
the  principal  hearty  food  for  horses,  mules,  and  donkeys.  They 
are  always  cooked,  and  animals  like  them,  and  thrive  on  them 
wonderfully. 

The  fruits  are  similar  to  those  of  the  United  States,  but 
most  varieties  are  decidedly  inferior.  Grapes,  peaches,  and 
apricots  in  the  north,  and  oranges  and  bananas  in  the  south, 
will  compare  favorably  with  the  same  fruits  in  our  own  coun- 
try. 

Agricultural  implements,  as  also  those  of  every  other  kind, 
are  exceedingly  rude  and  primitive.  The  fields  are  ploughed 
in  the  south  by  a single  bullock  or  water-buffalo,  and  by  bul- 
locks, mules,  and  donkeys  in  the  north,  where  these  three  ani- 
mals are  not  unfrequently  seen  harnessed  together  three 
abreast,  with  occasionally  a horse  by  way  of  variety. 

In  the  north  you  see  threshing-floors,  resembling  those 
spoken  of  in  the  Old  Testament.  A little  spot  of  ground  near 


OMIT  DRAWN  I5Y  HULLOOKB,  OR  MULES,  OR  IIORSES,  OR  DY  THESE  DIFFERENT  ANIMALS  TOGETHER. 


¥ 


THRESHING-FLOORS  AND  FERTILIZERS. 


41 


the  house  is,  just  before  harvest,  hardened  and  packed,  and 
looks  not  unlike  a cement  floor.  The  sheaves  of  grain  are 
brought  hither  on  the  backs  of  mules  and  donkeys.  The  heads 
of  the  sheaves  are  cut  off  with  a large  straw-knife,  and  the 
grain  is  trodden  out  by  donkeys  or  beaten  out  by  flails,  and  the 
chaff  being  thrown  up  with  a shovel,  is  blown  away  by  the 
wind.  I have  never  seen  a barn  in  any  part  of  China.  The 


IRRIGATION  1JY  MEAN 3 OF  AN  ENDLESS  CiIAIN-l»UMl\ 


straw  is  stacked  or  stored  away  in  some  vacant  loft,  and  is 
soon  disposed  of  for  provender  and  fuel. 

Great  care  is  taken  throughout  the  empire  to  preserve  ev- 
ery thing  which  can  be  used  to  enrich  the  soil.  Every  city 
and  village  contributes  its  quota  of  fertilizing  material,  which 
the  countrymen  apply  for  and  generally  purchase.  This  cus- 
tom, although  of  incalculable  use  in  adding  to  the  productive- 


42 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


ness  of  the  soil,  is  an  intolerable  nuisance  to  the  foreign  resi- 
dents. 

When  the  farmers  have  little  else  to  do,  the  sediment  of  the 
canals  is  scooped  out  and  spread  over  the  land,  and  the  canals 
in  this  way  are  kept  from  filling  up.  A great  deal  of  manual 
labor  is  expended  on  a small  area.  In  different  provinces  irri- 
gation is  practiced  to  a large  extent. 

Tire  style  of  architecture  in  China  is  rather  solid  and  sub- 
stantial than  beautiful,  and  seems  to  us  heavy  and  gloomy. 
Houses  have  sometimes  two  stories,  though  usually  but  one. 
They  are  built  of  stone,  or  wood,  or  brick,  according  to  the 
cheapness  of  these  articles  in  different  places,  and  the  prefer- 
ence of  the  builder.  The  floors  are  generally  cement  or  earth. 
The  windows  are  of  lattice-work,  upon  which  is  pasted  white 
paper,  which  requires  to  be  renewed  frequently.  The  dwell- 
ings of  the  rich  and  the  temples  are  exceedingly  costly,  and 
sometimes  elaborately  ornamented  with  wood  and  stone  carv- 
ings and  paintings.  The. most  of  these  houses  are  made  up 
of  different  buildings,  separated  by  open  courts.  An  outer 
wall,  which  often  entirely  conceals  the  street,  at  the  same  time 
shuts  out  the  outside  world  from  the  inmates.  In  cities  a 
group  of  buildings  is  often  protected  from  fire  by  extending 
the  wall  between  them  and  the  adjoining  ones  several  feet 
above  the  houses.  -Cities  are  often  saved  from  general  confla- 
grations by  these  fire-walls.  The  want  of  pure  air  in  the  cities 
is  compensated  in  part  by  free  ventilation  in  the  houses.  The 
people  are  not  particular  to  have  the  doors  and  windows  tight, 
and  the  doors,  excepting  the  one  on  the  street,  are  generally 
open,  at  least  in  the  day-time. 

There  are  no  stoves  or  fire-places  even  in  the  north  of 
China,  where  the  winters  are  severe.  To  keep  the  hands  and 
feet  warm,  brass  and  earthen  foot-stoves  are  used,  and  a deli- 
cate little  hand-stove  which  gentlemen  and  ladies  carry  in 
their  sleeves.  In  the  colder  latitudes  a raised  platform,  or 
dais,  is  built  in  the  room,  of  brick  and  stone,  under  which  a 
fire  is  kindled,  a chimney  carrying  off  the  smoke.  The. whole 


OCCUPATIONS  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 


43 


substance  of  this  dais  becomes  heated,  and  retains  its  warmth 
for  several  hours.  This  is  the  almost  universal  bed  of  the 
north  of  China.  It  radiates  very  little  heat,  however,  into  the 
room.  The  people  keep  themselves  warm  by  the  use  of  ad- 
ditional clothing. 

In  the  winter,  furs,  which  are  largely  imported  from  Man- 
churia, are  much  worn  by  the  more  wealthy  classes. 

A traveller  on  visiting  China  will  probably  be  struck  with 


FTSIJING  WITH  COP.MOIUA'TS. 


44 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


the  industrious  character  of  the  people  and  the  variety  of  their 
occupations.  Of  the  out-door  laborers,  in  addition  to  the  farm- 
ers, who  form  a large  proportion  of  the  population,  the  fisher- 
men are  also  very  numerous.  Some  of  them  pursue  their 
calling  along  the  sea-coast,  and  some  in  the  inland  lakes,  rivers, 
and  canals.  Almost  every  conceivable  means  of  taking  fish  is 
made  use  of — hooks,  spears,  the  drag-net  or  seine,  the  scoop- 
net,  the  cast-net,  the  lift-net,  the  gill-net  and  others. 

In  many  parts  of  Southern  China  fish  are  captured  by 
means  of  cormorants,  which  swim  under  water  in  pursuit  of 
their  prey  with  great  rapidity.  They  are  prevented  by  a 
string  or  ring  placed  round  their  throats  from  swallowing 
the  large  fish.  These  they  are  trained  to  yield-  up  to  their 
master,  who  always  follows  them  in  a small  boat  or  on  a raft, 
and  generally  makes  use  of  a long  bamboo  pole,  with  the 
heavier  end  of  which  he  pushes  his  raft,  while  he  directs  and 
controls  the  movements  of  the  birds  with  the  other. 


Obverse.  Reverse. 

FAC-SIMILE  OF  CA6II  COTIf  ET>  BY  THE  T.AST  F.MFEROR,  HIEN-FUNG, 
who  reigned  from  1S51-61,  representing  ten  common  cash. 


Among  their  artisans  they  number  carpenters,  masons, 
tailors,  shoemakers,  workers  in  iron  and  brass,  and  silver- 
smiths and  goldsmiths,  who  can  imitate  almost  any  article  of 
foreign  manufacture;  also  workmen  in  bamboo,  carvers,  idol- 
makers,  needle  manufacturers,  barbers,  hair-dressers,  etc.,  etc. 

Business  men  sell  almost  every  kind  of  goods  and  connnod- 


CHINESE  SHOPS  ANH  BUSINESS. 


45 


ities  wholesale  and  retail. 

Silk  stores,  fur  stores,  and 
jewelry  stores  present  a 
fine  display  of  showy  and 
costly  goods.  Money- 
changing shops  will  give 
you  silver  by  weight  for 
the  copper  coin  of  the 
country,  or  the  reverse,  or, 
for  an  equivalent,  their 
bank  bills,  redeemable  any 
time  either  in  silver  or 
copper  coin. 

Drug  stores,  with  signs 
covered  with  golden  let- 
ters, each  striving  to  be 
more  dazzling  than  the 
rest,  advertise  to  furnish  every  thing  in  the  Chinese  materia 
viedica  which  can  be  drawn  from  the  resources  of  the  eighteen 
provinces  and  foreign  -kingdoms.  The  names  and  titles  on 
these  sign-boards  are  the  most  pretentious  and  grandiloquent 
that  can  well  be  imagined. 

As  a general  thing  quiet  and  contentment  are  manifest,  and 
the  people  seem  industrious  and  happy. 

In  the  streets  of  the  cities  and  villages  you  will  see  men  ele- 
gantly dressed  and  with  polished  manners.  Large  fortunes  are 
amassed  very  much  in  the  same  way  and  by  the  same  means 
as  in  our  own  country.  The  wealth  of  the  rich  is  invested  in 
lands  or  houses,  or  employed  as  capital  in  trade  or  banking,  or 
is  lent  out  on  good  security,  and  often  at  a high  rate  of  interest. 

Jiven  a general  and  superficial  view  like  that  which  has 
been  attempted  in  the  preceding  pages,  is  sufficient  to  show 
that  this  is  a country  of  no  small  degree  of  civilization  and 
refinement,  in  which  law  and  order  prevail,  and  where  a well- 
organized  government  gives  at  least  some  good  degree  of 
protection  to  the  persons  and  property  of  its  citizens. 


Obverse.  Reverse. 


FAC-SIMILE  OF  ANCIENT  COIN,  COINED  DURING 
THE  11  AN  DYNASTY,  ABOUT  A.D.  9. 


46 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  III. 

CONFUCIUS  AND  CONFUCIANISM. 

The  Relation  of  Confucianism  to  the  Chinese  Civilization.  —The  name  Con- 
fucius.— His  Character  and  Mode  of  Life. — The  Manner  in  which  he  is 
regarded  by  the  Chinese. — Ilis  own  Estimate  of  himself. — Not  the  Origin- 
ator of  a new  System,  but  the  Propounder  and  Perpetuator  of  an  Ancient 
one. — The  Confucian  Classics. — General  Description  of  their  Contents. 
— The  Five  Relations  of  Life. — The  Five  Virtues. — The  political  or  gov- 
ernmental Feature  of  Confucianism. — Importance  of  Self-government 
and  Culture. — General  Estimate  of  Confucius  and  his  System. 

If  I have  succeeded  in  presenting  in  the  previous  chapters 
a just  and  life-like  view  of  the  extensive  territories,  vast  pop- 
ulation, and  immense  resources  and  wealth  of  the  Chinese 
empire,  and  the  general  prosperity,  happiness,  and  refinement 
of  its  inhabitants,  I trust  a desire  has  been  excited  in  the 
mind  of  the  reader  to  know  this  remarkable  people  more  inti- 
mately, and  to  inquire  into  the  sources  of  their  prosperity,  the 
peculiarities  of  their  culture  and  civilization,  and  the  stable 
foundations  upon  which  their  government  and  institutions 
have  so  long  rested. 

No  doubt  the  character  and  prosperity  of  the  Chinese  are 
due,  more  than  to  any  other  cause,  and  to  all  other  causes  com- 
bined, to  that  system  of  teachings  which  is  called  Confucian- 
ism. 

The  man  who  has  given  his  name  to  this  system  is  the  only 
one  of  his  race  who  has  achieved  a world-wide  reputation, .and 
this  he  has  done  in  a truer  and  more  literal  sense  than  any 
other  uninspired  teacher,  his  fame  extending  over  larger  terri- 
tories and  vaster  populations.  He  was  born  in  the  province 
of  Shantung,  and  the  department  of  Yin-chau,  b.c.  551.  His 
family  name  was  Ivung,  and  his  most  commonly  used  given 


CHARACTER  OF  CONFUCIUS. 


47 


name  Ckong-ni.  He  was  generally  called  by  his  disciples  Kung- 
f u-ts,  or  “ The  teacher  Kung.”  This  title  was  Latinized  by  the 
Jesuit  missionaries,  giving  us  the  word  Confucius,  which  has 
now  become  current  among  Western  nations. 

His  parents  were  respectable,  though  poor.  He  manifested 
a taste  for  study  when  very  young,  and  became  a teacher  at 
the  age  of  twenty-two.  His  character  as  a learned  man  soon 
drew  toward  him  a large  number  of  admiring  and  devoted 
disciples.  He  was  repeatedly  applied  to  by  the  petty  princes 
who  ruled  the  small  kingdoms,  into  which  China  was  at  that 
time  divided,  to  take  office  and  assist  in  the  administration  of 
government,  and  remarkable  accounts  are  given  of  the  salutary 
measures  he  introduced,  and  the  beneficial  results  which  fol- 
lowed. He  was,  however,  so  little  a courtier,  and  his  morality 
and  theories  of  government  and  political  economy  were  of  so 
severe  a type,  that  he  generally  remained  but  a short  time  in 
a place,  his  presence  either  becoming  distasteful  to  his  employ- 
ers, or  his  sense  of  justice  and  propriety  being  shocked  by  con- 
stantly beholding  what  he  could  neither  approve,  or  reform. 

Much  of  his  long  life  was  spent  in  journeying  from  prov- 
ince to  province,  vainly  endeavoring  to  reform  the  abuses  of 
the  times,  giving  instruction  to  his  followers,  and  prosecuting 
his  studies.  Greatly  neglected  and  imperfectly  appreciated 
during  his  life,  his  people  have,  since  his  death,  gone  to  the 
opposite  extreme  of  exaggerating  his  merits  and  exalting  him 
“ above  all  that  is  called  God  or  is  worshiped,”  almost  ascrib- 
ing to  him  perfection  of  virtue  and  omniscience,  in  opposition 
to  his  clear  and  repeated  acknowledgments  of  imperfections 
and  ignorance. 

His  own  estimate  of  himself  is  probably  very  near  the  truth, 
perhaps  erring  a little  on  the  side  of  modesty  and  deprecia- 
tion. He  says : “ The  sage  and  the  man  of  perfect  virtue — how 
dare  I rank  myself  with  them  ? It  may  simply  be  said  of  me, 
that  I strive  to  become  such  Avithout  satiety,  and  to  teach 
others  without  weariness.  In  letters  I am  perhaps  equal  to 
other  men ; but  the  character  of  the  superior  man,  carrying 


48 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


out  in  his  conduct  what  lie  professes,  is  what  I have  not  yet 
attained  to.  The  leaving  virtue  without  proper  cultiva- 
tion; the  not  thoroughly  discussing  what  is  learned  ; not  be- 
ing able  to  move  toward  righteousness  of  which  a knowledge 
is  gained ; and  not  being  able  to  change  what  is  not  good 
— these  are  the  things  which  occasion  me  solicitude.  I am 
not  one  who  was  born  in  the  possession  of  knowledge ; I am 
one  who  is  fond  of  antiquity,  and  earnest  in  seeking  it  there. 
A transmitter,  and  not  a maker,  believing  in  and  loving  the 
ancients.” 

As  is  frankly  stated  by  himself,  he  was  not  the  originator 
of  any  new  doctrine  or  system  of  doctrines,  but  simply  the 
expounder  and  perpetuator  of  the  teachings  of  the  sages  who 
preceded  him.  At  that  early  period  he  was  already  looking 
back  into  antiquity  and  endeavoring  to  save  its  works  from 
oblivion. 

We  may  infer  from  his  example  that  a want  of  originality, 
and  a servile  following  of  old  forms  and  usages,  was  a charac- 
teristic of  his  race  more  than  two  thousand  years  ago;  a pe- 
culiarity Avhich  his  teachings  and  example  have  served  to  ren- 
der still  more  extreme  and  confirmed. 

The  fact  that  Confucius  made  no  marked  advance  on  the 
knowledge  of  his  predecessors,  but  was  always  referring  to  the 
golden  age  of  the  past,  is  calculated  to  produce  a profound 
impression  as  to  the  moral  and  intellectual  culture  of  those 
who  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Chinese  civilization  more  than 
three  thousand  years  ago.  Confucius,  then,  was  rather  the  ex- 
ponent and  embodiment  of  the  Chinese  culture  than  the  origi- 
nator of  it. 

The  Chinese  classics,  in  which  the  Confucian  system  is  found, 
comprise  what  are  called  the  Wu-king  and  the  S-shu — “The 
Five  Classics  and  the  Four  Books.”  The  former,  with  one  ex- 
ception, existed  before  the  time  of  Confucius,  and  are  frequent- 
ly referred  to  in  his  teachings.  They  are  the  Shu-king,  the 
most  ancient  historical  work  in  China;  the  S-king,  or  “Book 
of  Odes;”  the  Yih-king,  or  “Book  of  Changes  ” (an  abstruse  and 


THE  CONFUCIAN  CLASSICS. 


49 


incomprehensible  system  of  philosophy,  ontology,  etc.) ; the  Li- 
kyi,  or  “ Book  of  Rites  and  Ceremonies,”  and  the  Cliuen-tsew, 
“ Spring  and  Autumn” — the  last  being  a historical  work  written 
by  Confucius  himself,  and  covering  a period  of  a few  hundred 
years  before  his  time.  It  is  called  Spring  and  Autumn,  be- 
cause the  commendations  and  examples  presented  in  it  for 
imitation  are  supposed  to  be  life-giving  like  spring,  and  the 
criticisms  and  rebukes  withering  like  autumn. 

Of  the  F our  Books,  the  first  and  most  important  is  that 
which  contains  the  sayings  and  teachings  of  Confucius  him- 
self as  recorded  by  his  disciples  after  his  death.  The  second 
contains  the  teachings  of  Mencius,  a celebrated  philosopher 
who  lived  about  two  hundred  years  after  the  time  of  Confu- 
cius. The  other  two  works,  called  the  “ Great  Learning  ” and 
the  “ Doctrine  of  the  Mean,”  are  considerably  smaller  than  the 
preceding,  with  which  they  are  associated  as  a part  of  the  Four 
Books,  though  they  really  originated  before  the  time  of  Confu- 
cius, and  are  found  in  the  “ Book  of  Rites.”  These  books  are 
emphatically  and  almost  exclusively  the  text-books  in  all  the 
schools  of  China,  and  are  regarded  as  the  summiim  bonum  of 
knowledge  and  literary  excellence.  They  have  moulded  the 
minds  and  characters  of  the  Chinese  race,  and  are  the  ultimate 
standard  to  which  all  moral,  governmental,  historical,  and  re- 
ligious questions  are  referred. 

The  contents  of  these  books  may  be  represented  in  general 
as  made  up  of  ethics,  history,  political  economy,  biography, 
and  poetry.  The  religious  element  is  almost  entirely  wanting. 
It  is  distinctly  stated  by  the  disciples  of  Confucius  that  he  did 
not  discourse  on  the  gods.  Silence  on  this  subject  was  prob- 
ably not  owing  to  any  contempt  for  or  disregard  of  it,  but  to 
ignorance.  Confucius  professed  to  teach  positive  truth,  in  op- 
position to  what  is  vague,  uncertain,  and  inferential ; and  -when 
he  could  not  speak  clearly  and  authoritatively  he  chose  not  to 
speak  at  all.  When  asked  by  one  of  his  disciples  about  death, 
his  sad  answer  was — “ Imperfectly  acquainted  with  life,  how 
can  I know  of  death?” 


C 


50 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


A correct  general  idea  of  his  system  may  be  obtained  from 
the  Five  Relations,  which  form  the  basis  of  it,  and  the  Five 
Virtues,  which  were  the  subject  of  his  most  frequent  conversa- 
tions. The  Five  Relations  are  those  subsisting  between  em- 
peror and  officer,  father  and  son,  husband  and  wife,  older  and 
younger  brothers,  and  friends. 

The  principles  and  duties  connected  with  the  first  relation 
present,  as  they  are  developed  and  explained,  the  Chinese  sys- 
tem of  government  and  political  economy,  which  forms  a large 
part  of  Confucius’s  teachings.  The  principles  underlying  this 
relation  are  often  referred  to,  and  illustrated  and  enforced  by 
references  to  ancient  history,  and  the  lives  and  examples  of  the 
renowned  rulers  of  antiquity. 

The  next  three  relations  belong  to  the  family,  which  is  just- 
ly regarded  as  the  true  foundation  of  the  State.  Here  are 
to  be  inculcated  lessons  of  respect,  obecfieuce,  and  regard  for 
law.  Here  habits  of  subjection  to  lawful  authority  are  form- 
ed which  fit  the  individual  for  being  a good  citizen.  This 
idea  is  clearly  brought  out  in  the  Confucian  analects  : “ There 
are  few  who,  being  filial  and  fraternal,  are  fond  of  offending 
against  their  superiors.  There  have  been  none  who,  not  liking 
to  offend  their  superiors,  have  been  fond  of  stirring  up  con- 
fusion.” 

Filial  piety  stands  first  in  the  category  of  human  duties, 
and  is  an  important  part,  of  the  religion  of  the  Chinese.  Dis- 
respect or  disobedience  to  parents  is  sometimes  punished  with 
death.  Iso  stigma  which  could  be  attached  to  the  character 
of  a Chinaman  is  more  dreaded  than  that  of  Puh-hiao — “ undu- 
tiful.”  Children  in  their  earlier  years  are  required  to  be  respect- 
ful, dutiful,  and  retiring ; when  their  parents  are  advanced  in 
life  they  are  expected  to  reverence  and  cherish  them,  to  an- 
ticipate all  their  wants,  and  strive  in  every  way  to  please  them ; 
and,  when  parents  are  dead,  to  worship  and  sacrifice  to  them. 
Men  are  exhorted  to  avoid  intemperance  and  vice,  lest  they  in- 
jure or  debase  the  bodies  derived  from  their  parents.  It  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  strongest  motives  to  a virtuous  and  honor- 


THE  FIVE  RELATIONS  AND  FIVE  VIRTUES.  51 

able  life  to  avoid  disgracing  and  offending  departed  ancestors, 
and  to  live  in  such  a manner  as  to  reflect  honor  upon  them. 
Respect  for  parents  is  also  regarded  as  naturally  connected 
with  and  leading  to  reverence  for  the  Emperor,  who  is  the 
Great  Father  of  his  people  as  well  as  the  Son  of  Heaven. 

The  relation  between  husband  and  wife  is  not  largely  dwelt 
upon.  W oman  has  an  inferior  position  allotted  to  her,  and  is 
the  servant  rather  than  the  companion  of  her  husband.  The 
duties  of  brethren  are  expressed  in  the  oft-repeated  maxim— 
“ Iliuncj  cd , ti  kin” — “ The  elder  is  to  love,  the  younger  is  to 
respect.” 

There  remains  the  wider  relation  subsisting  between  friends, 
which  it  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  upon.  These  Five  Relations 
cover  the  whole  sphere  of  human  duties.  The  relation  be- 
tween God  and  man  is  neglected  and  unknown,  while  almost 
divine  honors  are  awarded  to  the  Emperor  and  to  ancestors. 

The  Five  Virtues  of  the  Confucian  system  are  Jen,  Yi,Li, 
Cu,  and  Sin — “ Benevolence,”  “ Righteousness,”  “ Propriety,” 
“ Knowledge,”  and  “ F aitli.” 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  in  this  system,  as  in  the  Chris- 
tian, Jen,  or  Benevolence,  stands  first  and  foremost.  Of  this 
virtue  and  excellence  Confucius  seems  to  have  had  so  high  a 
conception  or*  ideal  that  he  did  not  regard  any  contempora- 
ries, and  but  few  of  the  ancient  worthies,  to  have  fully  attained 
to  it.  The  following  is  his  definition  of  it.  When  asked  by 
one  of  his  disciples,  “ Is  there  one  word  which  may  serve  as  a 
rule  of  practice  for  all  one’s  life  ?”  his  answer  was,  “ What 
you  do  not  want  done  to  yourself  do  not  do  to  others.”  This 
one  word,  for  the  government  of  the  whole  life,  is  “ all  the 
law  ” of  the  Confucian  system,  and  is,  to  say  the  least,  the 
nearest  approximation  to  the  Golden  Rule  of  our  Saviour 
which  has  ever  been  reached  by  any  ancient  sage.  It  is  sim- 
ply this  rule  in  the  negative  form,  having  for  its  object  rather 
the  deterring  of  men  from  doing  evil  than  the  inciting  them 
to  do  good.  In  another  paragraph  of  Confucius’s  teachings 
he  seems  almost  to  have  grasped  the  idea  of  the  positive  side 


52 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


of  this  precept.  “When  one  cultivates  to  the  utmost  the 
principles  of  his  nature,  and  exercises  them  on  the  principle 
of  reciprocity,  be  is  not  far  from  the  path.  What  you  do  not 
like  .when  done  to  yourself  do  not  to  others.  In  the  way  of 
the  superior  man  there  are  four  things,  to  not  one  of  which 
have  I as  yet  attained.  To  serve  my  father  as  I would  re- 
quire my  son  to  serve  me ; to  this  I have  not  attained.  To 
serve  my  prince  as  I would  require  my  minister  to  serve  me ; 
to  this  I have  not  attained.  To  serve  my  elder  brother  as  I 
would  require  my  younger  brother  to  serve  me ; to  this  I have 
not  attained.  To  set  the  example  in  behaving  to  a friend  as 
I would  require  him  to  behave  to  me ; to  this  I have  not  at- 
tained.” 

The  next  virtue  is  Righteousness,  which  is  defined,  that 
which  ought  to  be  done.  The  appeal  here  made  is  not  to  any 
written  code  of  law,  but  to  the  human  conscience,  the  law 
written  on  the  heart.  It  will  at  once  be  seen  how  comprehen- 
sive this  principle  is,  relating  to  every  act  or  deed  of  which 
the  conscience^  says  it  is  right ; it  ought  to  be  done. 

The  next  virtue,  Propriety — outward  forms  and  ceremo- 
nies— brings  to  view  a characteristic  feature  of  this  system. 
Every  inward  state  of  feeling  is  supposed  to  have  a proper 
outward  expression.  While  the  inner  feeling  naturally  gives 
rise  to  its  external  manifestation,  so  the  habitual  cultivation 
of  the  outward  forms  of  propriety  tends  to  foster  and  develop 
the  inner  virtue. 

There  are  also  certain  forms  or  rules  of  propriety  and  con- 
duct which  should  regulate  the  intercourse  between  men  in 
different  ranks  and  positions  in  society,  and  which  naturally 
and  necessarily  belong  to  certain  times,  circumstances,  and 
occasions. 

These  rules  of  propriety  are  regarded  as  the  great  balance- 
wheel  which  gives  harmony  and  unity  to  society,  or  as  one 
of  the  chief  corner-stones  on  which  society  and  government 
rest,  and  without  which  mutual  understanding  and  respect 
would  give  place  to  confusion,  lawlessness,  and  anarchy. 


THE  OBJECT  OF  CONFUCIUS  S TEACHINGS. 


53 


Confucius  devoted  much  of  his  attention  to  the  study  of  the 
rites  and  ceremonies  of  different  kingdoms  and  states,  and 
the  importance  which  he  attached  to  this  matter  has  had 
much  to  do  in  developing  and  stereotyping  those  inflexible 
formalities  and  minute  conventionalities  which  are  every- 
where seen  in  social  and  public  life. 

Knowledge  relates  to  general  learning  arid  intelligence,  but 
especially  to  a knowledge  of  men,  a knowledge  of  one’s  self, 
and  practical  wisdom  in  dealing  with  others.  F or  those  who 
are  in  high  positions,  and  are  required  to  influence  and  gov- 
ern others,  Confucius  insists  upon  a life  of  severe  study,  close 
and  patient  observation,  and  mature  thought. 

In  addition  to  the  careful  culture  of  the  affections,  the  con- 
science, the  outward  behavior,  and  the  intellect,  sincerity  of 
heart  and  truthfulness  are  specially  insisted  upon  as  essential. 
The  character  Sin  is  used  both  to  represent  faith  and  truth- 
fulness, the  ground  of  faith.  In  speaking  of  self-culture  and 
self-restraint,  the  difficulties  of  controlling  the  “ unruly  mem- 
ber” have  not  been  forgotten.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  in  a 
few  instances  Confucius  illustrates  this  difficulty  in  his  own 
experience,  thus  weakening  the  force  of  his  teachings,  and 
confirming  the  statement  that  he  had  not  been  able  to  reach 
his  own  standard. 

While  Confucius  refers  to  the  sages  of  the  past  as  the 
authors  of  his  system,  he  rests  its  authority  upon  the  verdict 
of  conscience,  and  it  was  to  this  that  he  constantly  appealed. 
He  sought  to  interpret  rightly  and  to  follow  carefully  the  sug- 
gestions and  intimations  of  man’s  moral  nature.  This  char- 
acteristic feature  of  Confucius  has  so  impressed  itself  upon 
the  Chinese  mind,  that  nothing  is  more  common,  even  in  the 
familiar  language  of  the  masses,  than  appeals  to  the  fixed  prin- 
ciple of  right  and  true  docti’ine  as  attested  by  conscience. 

The  ultimate  object  of  Confucius’s  teachings  is  the  promo- 
tion of  good  government ; and  the  instruction  of  his  disciples 
relates  principally  to  their  preparation  for  successfully  influ- 
encing and  controlling  others.  He  did  not  seek  this  end  by 


51 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


devising  the  best  code  of  laws  for  restraining  and  coercing 
the  inhabitants  of  the  empire,  but  by  pointing  out  rules  and 
principles  for  self-government  and  culture.  He  relied  on 
moral  and  not  physical  force,  on  example  and  instruction 
rather  than  law  and  punishment.  He  believed  that  if  the 
rulers  cultivated  virtue  the  people  would  revere,  obey,  and 
imitate  them.  His  beautiful  though,  perhaps,  Utopian  con- 
ception of  a perfect  government  was  one  in  which  the  ruler 
sways  the  minds  of  his  people  by  illustrating  in  his  own  per- 
son the  perfection  of  virtue,  and  thus  sits  still  and  looks 
abroad  upon  a peaceful  and  happy  state. 

In  addition  to  the  failure  of  Confucius  to  live  up  to  his 
standard  of  sincerity,  which  has  been  referred  to  above,  it  is 
further  to  be  regretted  that,  in  adopting  the  views  and  follow- 
ing the  examples  of  those  who  preceded  him,  he  sanctioned 
and  encouraged  the  worship  of  gods  and  ancestors,  the  pride 
and  self-conceit  of  his  nation,  and  the  doctrine  of  revenge,  as 
allowable  and  obligatory  in  the  one  case  of  a son  whose  father 
has  been  murdered. 

To  reproach  Confucius,  however,  for  these  defects,  and  be- 
cause his  system,  though  excellent  in  many  respects,  is  mani- 
festly imperfect,  is  to  find  fault  with  him  for  being  human. 
Would  it  not  be  unreasonable  to  expect  him  to  approach 
nearer  to  the  Christian  standard  of  truth  and  worship  than 
he  has  ? . YChile  he  was  not  and  did  not  aspire  to  be  great  as 
a metaphysician  or  logician,  he  was  rather  the  practical  phi- 
losopher, thoroughly  versed  in  the  knowledge  of  his  times  ; a 
close  observer  of  men,  earnest,  sincere,  and  retiring  in  his 
spirit,  and  desiring  to  benefit  his  race,  and  to  teach  the 
truth.  It  is,  perhaps,  not  too  much  to  say  of  him  that  the 
system  of  ethics  and  morality  which  he  taught  is  the  purest 
which  has  ever  originated  in  the  history  of  the  world  inde- 
pendent of  the  divine  revelation  in  the  Bible,  and  that  he  has 
exerted  a greater  influence  for  good  upon  our  race  than  any 
other  uninspired  sage  of  antiquity. 


COMPETITIVE  LITERARY  EXAMINATIONS. 


55 


CHAPTER  IY. 

COMPETITIVE  EXAMINATIONS  AND  SCHOOLS. 

The  Chinese  Idea  of  -the  Qualifications  of  Officers.— Origin  of  the  Compet- 
itive Examinations.— Classes  of  Persons  excluded.— Two  preparatory 
Examinations.- — Examination  for  conferring  the  first  Degree. — For  con- 
ferring the  second  Degree.— Third  Degree. — Corresponding  Military 
Examinations. — Various  Advantages  secured  by  the  Literary  Examina- 
tions.— The  Position  and  Influence  of  Literary  Men. — Character  of  Chi- 
nese Schools. — Pupils  commit  to  Memory  whole  Books  without  under- 
standing their  Meaning. 

TnE  earnestness  and  zeal  with  which  Confucius  taught 
were  the  natural  result  of  his  strong  conviction  that  the  gener- 
al happiness  and  prosperity  of  the  people,  and  the  stability  of 
the  government,  could  only  spring  from  the  principles  of 
truth  and  righteousness,  apprehended  by  and  operative  in  the 
minds  of  the  people  generally,  and  especially  of  the  ruling 
classes.  All  his  teachings  had  more  or  less  a political  or  gov- 
ernmental reference. 

This  supreme  importance  of  securing  wise  and  virtuous 
rulers  was  acknowledged  by  the  Chinese  from  an  early  period, 
and  the  sources  of . intellectual  and  moral  culture  were  sup- 
posed to  be  found  almost  exclusively  in  the  ancient  classics. 
The  desire  to  bring  the  influences  of  these  works  to  bear  upon 
the  education  of  civil  rulers,  and  their  better  preparation  for 
the  performance  of  their  official  functions,  became  more  and 
more  prominent,  and  resulted  about  one  thousand  years  ago 
in  the  establishment  of  a system  of  Competitive  Literary  Ex- 
aminations, which  has  been  modified  and  improved  during 
successive  ages,  and  has  become  one  of  the  most  remarka- 
ble and  powerful  organizations  which  the  world  has  ever 
known. 


56 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


Through  and  by  these  competitive  examinations,  persons 
from  almost  every  condition  in  life  may  rise  to  the  highest 
positions  of  honor  and  influence  in  the  empire. 

There  are,  however,  four  classes,  who,  with  their  posterity 
for  three  generations,  are  excluded  from  them ; namely,  the 
children  of  prostitutes,  public  play-actors,  executioners,  the 
inferior  grades  of  the  servants  or  attendants  of  mandarins, 
and  jailers.  It  is  supposed  that  the  immediate  descend- 
ants of  these  classes,  whatever  their  intellectual  qualifica- 
tions might  be,  would  be  destitute  of  those  moral  qualities 
which  should  be  possessed  by  good  rulers.  All  persons  what- 
ever are  prohibited  from  attending  these  examinations  within 
three  years  after  the  death  of  a father  or  mother ; as  the  strife 
for  honor  and  preferment,  and  the  close  application  which  is 
necessary  to  success,  are  deemed  inconsistent  with  those  feel- 
ings of  filial  piety  which  should  occupy  the  mind  during  the 
period  of  mourning  for  a deceased  parent. 

A minute  account  of  the  details  of  this  system  of  exami- 
nations, and  its  Avorkings,  though  it  might  be  interesting  to  a 
feiv,  Avould  be  tiresome  to  the  general  reader".  Only  a sketch 
or  outline  will  be  attempted  in  this  chapter. 

According  to  the  theory  of  the  Chinese  government,  all  its 
civil  officers  must  be  literary  graduates  of  the  second  or  third 
degree.  The  first  degree  is  conferred  in  the  Fu  cities,  the 
second  in  the  provincial  capitals,  and  the  third  in  Pekin,  the 
national  capital. 

Two  preparatory  examinations  are  required  of  the  under- 
graduates before  they  are  alloAved  to  compete  for  the  first  de- 
gree. The  first  of  these  is  the  examination  of  the  scholars  of 
each  llien  by  the  district  magistrate.  The  next  is  the  exam- 
ination of  all  the  scholars  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a Fu  city 
by  the  prefect  of  that  city.  These  tivo  preparatory  examina- 
tions need  not  be  specially  described,  as  they  differ  A'ery  lit- 
tle fi'om  the  next  folloAving.  No  degree  is  conferred,  but  those 
who  stand  highest  on  the  roll  in  these  examinations  are  very 
apt  to  be  among  the  successful  competitors  in  the  next  one. 


EXAMINATIONS  FOR  THE  FIRST  DEGREE. 


57 


The  first  degree  is  conferred,  not  by  the  local  officer,  the 
prefect,  but  by  literary  chancellors,  or  imperial  commission- 
ers, sent  from  the  capital  for  that 
purpose.  In  the  crowds  which 
now  throng  the  streets  of  the  Fu 
city,  every  city  and  village,  and 
almost  every  hamlet  in  the  pre- 
fecture is  represented.  Each  of 
these  aspirants  after  literary  hon- 
ors has  already  filed  with  a clerk 
of  the  district  magistrate  of  the 
Mien  city  to  which  he  belongs  a 
paper  containing  the  name  of  his 
father,  grandfather,  and  principal 
teacher,  and  also  the  name  of  his 
neighbors  on  the  right  hand  and 
on  the  left,  together  with  his  own 
name,  age,  stature,  complexion,  etc. 

This  paper  must  be  signed  by 
well-known  securities,  who  are  lit- 

. r LITERARY  UNDER  GRADUATE,  OR  RTU- 

erary  graduates.  I he  existence  of  dent. 

this  document  furnishes  a strong 

motive,  if  such  be  needed,  to  secure  good  behavior,  and  in  case 
of  infringement  of  rules,  or  other  criminality,  is  of  great  use 
in  finding  the  offender  and  bringing  him  to  justice.  As  the 
whole  number  of  the  scholars  attending  these  examinations 
ranges  in  different  cities  from  3000  to  6000  or  more,  the  ex- 
amination hall  can  not  contain  all  at  one  time,  and  the  scholars 
from  different  Fieri  are  admitted  together.  No  individual  is 
allowed  to  enter  unless  the  literary  graduate  who  is  his  se- 
curity is  present  in  person  to  answer  for  him  when  his  name 
is  called.  When  admitted,  each  person  is  assigned  to  his 
place  or  seat.  The  competitors  are  not  allowed  to  take  in 
with  them  any  books  or  helps  to  composition,  b§t  only  writ- 
ing materials  and  a little  food. 

When  all  the  arrangements  are  completed,  themes  are  an- 

C 2 


53 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


nounced  for  two  prose  essays  and  one  poem,  and  each  indi- 
vidual scholar  proceeds  at  once  to  his  work.  The  themes  are 
taken  from  the  Four  Books,  being  generally  some  utterance 
of  Confucius  or  Mencius.  Each  candidate  is  supposed  to  be 
familiar  with  the  meaning,  connection,  and  scope  of  these 
themes,  and  with  the  rules  and  regulations  which  are  to  guide 
him  in  his  impromptu  compositions. 

The  essays  required  must  be  completed  before  night,  and 
the  hall  emptied.  The  name  of  each  competitor  is  written 
on  one  corner  of  his  composition,  the  paper  is  folded  over 
and  pasted  so  as  to  conceal  it,  and  it  is  not  discovered  until 
the  essay  has  been  examined  and  its  merits  decided  upon. 

This  examination  is  repeated  at  least  once.  If  an  individu- 
al fails  to  complete  his  work  within  the  prescribed  time,  or 
violates  any  of  the  rules,  he  is  not  permitted  to  enter  the  hall 
the  next  time,  and  so  the  number  of  competitors  is  dimin- 
ished. 

Those  whose  essays  and  poems  are  adjudged  to  be  the 
best  are  required  to  pass  another  examination,  consisting  of 
writing  from  memory  from  a book  well  known  in  China,  and 
called  the  “ Sacred  Edict.”  This  must  be  done  with  perfect 
accuracy.  After  this  the  names  of  the  successful  competitors 
are  announced. 

The  number  is  very  small  compared  to  the  whole.  They 
receive  the  first  degree,  called  Siu-tsai — “ Beautiful  Ability.” 

The  examinations  for  the  second  degree  are  held  triennially 
in  each  of  the  provincial  capitals.  The  presiding  ofiicers  are 
two  persons  of  high  rank  and  literary  merit,  commissioned 
from  Pekin.  The  graduates  of  the  first  degree,  who  assemble 
from  different  parts  of  the  province,  generally  number  from 
5000  to  8000.  The  more  wealthy  are  accompanied  by  serv- 
ants, and  many  others  by  relatives  and  friends,  who  avail  them- 
selves of  this  opportunity  of  visiting  the  provincial  capital. 

The  lar<p  examination  halls  in  the  provincial  cities  contain 
accommodations  for  near  10,000  competitors.  Each  person 
is  supplied  with  a little  cell  or  compartment.  The  students 


EXAMINATIONS  FOR  THE  SECOND  DEGREE. 


59 


take  in  with  them  their  bedding  and  food,  as  they  are  re- 
quired to  stay  in  the  hall  two  days.  Servants  and  friends  are 
parted  from  them  at  the  door.  When  the  arrangements  are 
complete  the  doors  are  shut,  and  no  ingress  or  egress  is  al- 
lowed until  the  time  allotted  to  the  composition  of  the  essays 
has  expired.  The  whole  number  inside  the  examination  walls, 
including  officers,  examiners,  assistants,  servants,  etc.,  is  gen- 
erally from  10,000  to  12,000. 

Themes  are  announced  from  the  Four  Books  for  throe  prose 
essays  and  due  poem.  When  the  compositions  are  finished 
they  first  pass  into  the  hands  of  a class  of  examiners  whose 
business  it  is  to  see  whether  they  are  free  from  glaring  defects 
and  conform  to  the  general  rules  of  the  examination.  If 
they  pass  this  ordeal,  they  are  then  copied  in  red  ink  by  a 
company  of  scribes.  This  is  done  to  prevent  the  examiners 
from  recognizing  the  handwriting  of  any  of  the  competitors. 
Another  class  of  assistants  carefully  compares  the  original 
manuscript  with  the  copy,  character  by  character,  to  see  that 
no  mistake  has  been  made  in  transcribing. 

The  copies  are  now  examined  by  another  company  of 
scholars,  and  those  compositions  whose  literary  character  is 
good  receive  a round  red  mark,  without  which  they  pass  no 
further.  The  manuscripts  which  survive  this  sifting  proc- 
ess reach  the  hands  of  the  chief  examiners,  and  those  of  the 
highest  literary  excellence  are  selected  from  them.  On  the 
morning  of  the  third  day  the  gates  are  opened,  and  those  who 
have  finished  their  work  and  come  out  first  are  greeted  as 
they  emerge  from  their  confinement  with  the  firing  of  guns 
and  the  best  music  which  China  affords.  After  an  intermis- 
sion of  only  one  day  the  candidates  enter  the  hall  again  for  a 
similar  examination,  except  that  in  this  case  the  themes  for 
the  prose  essays  and  the  poem  are  taken  from  the  Five  Clas- 
sics instead  of  the  Four  Books.  After  another  day’s  inter- 
mission a third  examination  is  held.  The  subjects  given  out 
are  in  this  case  miscellaneous. 

The  commissioners  decide  upon  the  worthy  competitors  in 


GO 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


view  of  the  results  of  these  three  examinations,  having  vowed 
before  heaven,  in  a temple  within  the  enclosure,  to  deal  justly 
and  honestly.  The  proportion  of  the  successful  candidates  to 
the  whole  number  is  about  one  to  a hundred.  They  receive 
the  second  degree,  called  Kyu-jin — “ Promoted  (or  advanced) 
Men.” 

Notwithstanding  all  the  precautions  which  are  taken  to 
prevent  collusion  and  favoritism,  there  are  methods,  which 
need  j*ot  be  described  here,  by  which  the  examining  officers 
are  said  to  be  sometimes  bribed  and  corruptecl.  Still,  the 
system  of  examinations  could  hardly  be  more  thoroughly 
elaborated  and  systematized,  and  few  pass  through  this  ordeal 
without  being  possessed  of  more  than  ordinary  ability. 

The  tax  of  these  examinations  upon  the  physical  strength 
of  those  who  take  part  in  them  is  very  great.  Many  come 
home  exhausted  and  depressed.  Some  are  taken  ill  and  die 
in  the  hall.  In  such  cases  the  body  is  removed  over  the  back 
Avail,  as  the  taking  it  out  openly  through  the  front  door  would 
be  regarded  as  an  evil  omen,  and  an  unnecessary  interference 
Avith  the  formal  and  invariable  routine  of  the  exercises. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  desci'ibe  in  detail  the  higher  examina- 
tions through  which  Kyu-jin  are  advanced  to  the  third  degree. 
This  examination  is  conducted  in  the  national  capital,  and  is 
also  held  triennially.  The  graduates  of  the  second  degree  from 
the  different  provinces  are  assisted  by  a certain  sum  of  money 
from  the  imperial  treasury,  to  be  used  for  defraying  their 
travelling  expenses.  Tavo  or  three  hundred  persons  receive 
the  third  degree  at  every  examination.  They  are  then  eligible 
to  office,  and  are  either  retained  in  the  capital  or  sent  out  to 
occupy  official  positions  in  the  provinces. 

There  is  also  a system  of  military  examinations,  formed 
after  the  model  of  those  Avhich  have  been  described.  In  them 
the  relative  merits  of  different  competitors  are  determined  by 
lifting  heavy  Aveights,  bending  bows  of  different  degrees  of 
strength,  shooting  arroAvs  at  a target,  shooting  from  horse- 
back, and  occasionally  the  shooting  at  a mark  Avith  fire-arms. 


MILITARY  EXAMINATIONS. 


61 


Nothing  in  connection  with  the  present%istoms  of  this  nation 
more  strikingly  illustrates  their  disposition  to  adhere  to  old 
stereotyped  forms  and  usages,  when  they  are  palpably  obsolete 
and  useless,  than  these  military  exercises. 


MILITARY  CANDIDATES  COMPETING  WITH  BOW  AND  ARROW. 

9 

A principal  part  of  the  military  examinations  consists  in 
shooting  at  a mark  with  a bow  and  arrow  from  horseback. 
The  horse  runs  in  a trench  about  two  feet  deep,  so  that  he  can 
not  endanger  his  rider  by  moving  out  of  a perfectly  straight 
line ; the  arrow  is  discharged  into  or  at  a bundle  of  straw, 
about  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  about  four  feet  distant  from 
the  trench.  The  horse  is  led  into  one  end  of  the  trench  by  a 
groom,  and  started  by  a stroke  of  his  whip,  if  he  needs  it,  and 
is  often  received  at  the  other  end  by  another  groom.*  The 
few  horses  found  in  the  south  of  China  are  obtained  and  used 
almost  exclusively  for  this  military  exercise. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how  the  literary  examinations 


02 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


exert  a powerful  infldtmee  on  the  whole  empire.  The  prepa- 
ration and  selection  of  educated  men,  familiarized  with  the  his- 
tory,  government,  political  economy,  literature,  and  ethics  of 
the  nation,  is  by  no  means  the  only  advantage  derived  from 
them,  though  it  is  the  primary  and  principal  one.  A powerful 
stimulus  is  given  to  literary  pursuits,  which  is  the  principal 
cause  of  the  establishment  of  schools.  Were  literature  culti- 
vated only  from  the  love  of  it,  and  for  its  own  sake,  the  case 
would  be  different.  Persons  of  almost  every  class,  and  in  al- 
most every  station  in  life,  make  an  effort  to  send  their  boys  to 
school  with  the  hope  that  they  may  distinguish  themselves,  be 
advanced  to  high  positions  in  the  State,  and  reflect  honor  on 
their  families.  The  great  propoi’tion  of  them,  in  the  course  of 
three,  four,  or  five  years,  find  that  much  study  is  a weariness 
to  the  flesh,  give  up  their  hopes  of  literary  preferment,  and 
many  of  them,  having  learned  to  write  a good  hand,  acquired 
the  knowledge  of  a few  characters,  and  a smattering  of  learn- 
ing, become  clerks  in  stores,  and  afterward  business  men. 

Of  those  who  compete  for  literary  honors  a very  small 
proportion  are  successful  in  attaining  even  the  first  degree, 
though  some  strive  for  it  for  a life-time.  These  unsuccessful 
candidates,  and  the  graduates  of  the  first  and  second  degrees, 
form  the  important  class  of  literary  men  scattered  throughout 
the  empire.  Most  of  them  devote  themselves  Avholly  to  study. 
They  are  the  readers  and  writers  of  the  country  ; the  men  of 
influence  and  the  formers  of  public  opinion.  Many  of  them 
are  as  learned  as  their  more  fortunate  brethren,  who  may  have 
a more  ready  talent  for  off-hand  composition,  or  larger  purses, 
or  friends  at  court. 

Having  studied  the  same  text-books,  and  been  trained  under 
the  influence  of  one  general  system,  they  have  a homogeneous 
culture ; and  being  uniformly  distributed  among  the  provinces, 
and  Mingling  daily  with  their  less  cultivated  friends  and  neigh- 
bors, they  impress  themselves  upon  and  mould  the  masses,  and 
render  the  whole  population  homogeneous. 

The  large  proportion  of  this  class  are  comparatively  poor, 


CHINESE  SCHOOLS. 


63 


and  their  services  may  be  obtained  for  a very  small  remuner- 
ation. They  are  employed  to  teach  the  village  schools.  Rich 
families  in  different  neighborhoods  often  assist  in  keeping  up 
the  school  for  the  credit  of  the  village,  and  opportunities  for 
obtaining  a Chinese  education  are  thus  brought  within  the 
reach  of  all. 

Graduates  of  the  first  and  second  degrees  generally  have 
the  charge  of  more  advanced  pupils,  and  command  higher 
wages,  and  many  are  engaged  as  tutors  in  private  families. 
They  are  also  employed  as  scribes  or  copyists,  and  to  Avrite 
letters,  family  histories  and  genealogies,  indictments  for  law- 
suits, etc. 

In  the  larger  cities  schools  are  established  by  the  govern- 
ment, and  in  many  places  free  schools  are  supported  by  wealthy 
individuals,  but  these  institutions  do  not  seem  to  be  popular, 
and  are  not  flourishing. 

The  manner  in  which  the  schools  of  China  are  conducted  is 
peculiar,  and  worthy  of  special  notice.  The  text-books  are  the 
Chinese  classics,  or  elementary  and  preparatory  books  for  be- 
ginners introductory  to  them.  There  is  no  occasion  for  the  com- 
plaint so  often  heard  with  us,  that  the  teacher  wishes  to  intro- 
duce a new  book,  for  theirs  are  nearly  all  two  thousand  years 
old,  and  few  have  any  idea  of  their  being  changed  for  the  next 
two  thousand  years.  These  books  are  all  written  in  the  book- 
language,  as  different  from  the  vernacular  as  Latin  is  from 
English.  Every  word  in  this  Avritten  language  has  its  inde- 
pendent and  arbitrary  representative  or  symbol,  so  that  there 
are  as  many  different  characters  as  there  are  Avords.  The  be- 
ginner, then,  instead  of  learning  an  alphabet  as  Avith  us,  com- 
mences learning  these  characters  or  Avords  separately,  each  of 
Avhich  has  its  OAvn  sound  or  name.  The  first  object  is  to  learn 
the  name,  without  any  reference  to  the  meaning.  At  first, 
perhaps  ten  of  -them,  more  or  less,  are  learned  in  a day.  By 
degrees  the  pupil  becomes  familiar  Avith  the  most  common  ones, 
and  is  then  introduced  to  the  Chinese  classics — the  sayings 
of  Confucius,  for  instance.  lie  learns  a feAV  lines  for  a les- 


64 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


son,  llio  teacliev  giving  to  him  the  names  of  the  characters 
which  have  not  been  met  with  before. 

No  attention  as  yet  is  given  to  the  meaning.  The  object 
is  simply  to  become  familiar  with  the  names  of  the  individual 
characters  and  to  commit  the  sentences  to  memory,  just  as  a 
boy  might  be  required  to  commit  to  memory  a paragraph  of 
Virgil,  repeating  every  word  accurately,  without  the  slightest 
idea  of  the  meaning  or  of  the  structure  of  the  language.  In 
this  way  thousands  of  these  arbitrary  symbols  are  learned,  and 
book  after  book  committed  to  memory  before  the  first  attempt 
is  made  at  explanation. 

Another  feature,  which  is  still  more  singular,  is  that  the  pu- 
pils study  out  loud,  and  all  separately,  without  being  organ- 
ized into  classes.  Each  boy,  after  being  helped  in  learning 
the  names  of  the  unfamiliar  characters  in  his  task — which  may 
be  shorter  or  longer,  a few  sentences  for  the  smaller  boys 
and  a page  for  the  larger — shouts  it  out  from  his  desk  at  the 
top  of  his  voice,  over  and  over,  until  he  can  repeat  it  without 
looking  on  the  book.  I suppose  the  object  or  design  of  this 
singular  custom  is  to  make  use  both  of  the  voice  and  the  ear, 
in  order  to  make  a stronger  impression  upon  the  memory. 

This  method  has  the  additional  advantage  of  keeping  the 
boys  at  work  better  than  they  could  be  by  a silent  mental  ef- 
fort ; of  letting  the  teacher  know  when  they  are  flagging  (in 
which  case  he  raps  on  his  desk,  and  they  burst  out  again  in 
full  chorus) ; of  exercising  and  developing  the  lungs  and  vocal 
organs,  and  cultivating  a habit  of  mental  abstraction. 

In  the  course  of  a few  years  the  teacher  begins  to  explain 
the  books  which  have  been  piemorized.  In  the  mean  time, 
however,  the  pupil  has  almost  unconsciously  obtained  a con- 
siderable insight  into  the  language,  from  its  points  of  coinci- 
dence with  his  vernacular,  and  the  hints  which  he  has  picked 
up  from  the  conversations  of  teachers  and  advanced  pupils. 

From  the  beginning,  lessons  are  taken- every  day  in  writing  ; 
first  on  transparent  paper  over  a copy,  afterward  by  imitation, 
commencing  with  large  characters,  and  diminishing  the  size 


ATTENTION  GIVEN  TO  PENMANSHIP. 


65 


gradually.  A fine  hand  is  much  admired  ; and  as  the  charac- 
ters are  very  numerous,  and  some  of  them  very  elaborate,  it  is 
common  for  persons  to  employ  a portion  of  the  time  during 
their  whole  life-time  in  improving  their  penmanship. 

When  boys  have  reached  the  age  of  twelve  or  fourteen 
they  commence  writing  literary  compositions.  The  style  and 
character  of  these  is  determined  by  that  which  prevails  in 
the  literary  examinations.  The  object  is  not  to  bring  out  any 
new  ideas,  but  to  follow  in  the  track  of  the  orthodox  commen- 
tators, and  observe  strictly  prescribed  rules.  The  essays  are 
* a kind  of  literary  mosaic,  composed  of  ethical  axioms,  histor- 
ical references,  obscure  allusions,  and  hints,  poetical,  biograph- 
ical, and  historical,  with  which  their  memories  are  stored; 
while  they  almost  unconsciously  fall  into  the  style  and  forms 
of  expression  with  which  their  minds  have  become  familiar,  in 
the  course  of  their  memoriter  studies. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  Chinese  system  of  education, 
while  it  develops  and  stores  the  memory  to  an  unprecedented 
extent,  discourages  and  precludes  all  freedom  of  thought  and 
originality. 

The  characters  and  relations  of  the  different  languages  of 
China,  which  have  necessarily  been  referred  to  in  connection 
with  schools,  are  treated  of  more  fully  in  the  fourteenth  chapter., 


66 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  Y. 

THE  CONSTITUTION  OF  TIIE  CHINESE  GOVERNMENT. 

The  Chinese  Government  patriarchal.  — Titles  of  the  Emperor.  — The 
Throne  not  strictly  Hereditary. — Relations  of  the  Emperor  to  his  Offi- 
cers.— The  Cabinet. — The  General  Council. — The  Six  Boards. — Dif- 
ferent Courts  and  the  Censorate. — The  Imperial  Academy. — Provin- 
cial Governments. — The  Civil  Code. — Practical  Workings  of  the  Chinese 
Government.— Restraints  brought  to  bear  upon  the  Emperor,  Officers, 
and  People. — The  People  sometimes  assert  and  demand  their  Rights. 
— Insurrections  and  Rebellions. — Republicanism  of  China. — Village 
Elders. — Private  Redress. — Family  Feuds. 

Tiie  Chinese  government  is  one  of  the  great  wonders  of  his- 
tory. It  presents  to  us  to-day  the  same  character  which  it 
possessed,  in  the  germ  at  least,  more  than  three  thousand 
years  ago,  and  which  it  has  retained  ever  since,  during  a period 
which  covers  the  authentic  history  of  tln^vorld. 

A prominent  English  writer,*  in  speaking  of  the  Chinese 
executive  system,  characterizes  it  “ as  at  once  the  most  gigan- 
tic and  the  most  minutely  organized  that  the  world  has  ever 
seen.” 

The  character  of  the  government  is  patriarchal.  It  as- 
sumed its  present  form  at  a very  early  period,  when  the  Chi- 
nese race  was  divided  into  petty  kingdoms  and  principalities. 
As  the  empire  grew  in  territory  and  population  the  funda- 
mental idea  was  retained,  the  system  of  government  being  ex- 
panded and  modified  to  suit  the  conditions  of  the  growing 
state. 

The  most  common  titles  of  the  Emperor  are  Hwang- Shang — 

* Thomas  Taylor  Meadows,  Chinese  interpreter  in  Her  Majesty’s  civil  serv- 
ice, and  author  of  “ The  Chinese  and  their  Rebellions,”  published  in  Lon- 
don by  Smith,  Eldin,  & Co. 


THE  EMPEROR  OF  CHINA. 


67 


“The  August  Lofty  One,”  and  Tien-Tsz — “The  Son  of  Heaven.” 
He  exercises  supreme  control  over  the  whole  empire,  because 
Heaven  lias  empowered  and  required  him  to  do  so.  His  pa- 
triarchal character,  while  it  confers  on  him  absolute  sover- 
eignty,  imposes  also  the  obligation  to  treat  his  people  with 
leniency,  sympathy,  and  love.  He  lives  in  unapproachable 
grandeur,  and  is  never  seen  except  by  members  of  his  own 
family  and  high  state  officers.  “Nothing  is  omitted  which 
can  add  to  the  dignity  and  sacredness  of  his  person  or  char- 
acter. Almost  every  thing  used  by  him  or  in  his  service  is 
tabooed  from  the  common  people,  and  distinguished  by  some 
peculiar  mark  or  color,  so  as  to  keep  up  the  impression  of 
awe  with  which  he  is  regarded,  and  which  is  so  powerful  an 
auxiliary  to  his  throne.  The  outward  gate  of  the  palace  must 
always  be  passed  on  foot,  and  the  paved  entrance-walk  leading 
up  to  it  can  only  be  used  by  him.  The  vacant  throne,  or  even 
a screen  of  yellow  silk  thrown  over  a chair,  is  worshiped 
equally  with  his  actual  presence,  and  a dispatch  is  received  in 
the  provinces  with  incense  and  prostration.”* 

The  throne  is  not  strictly  and  necessarily  hereditary,  though 
the  son  of  the  Emperor  generally  succeeds  to  it.  The  Em- 
peror appoints  his  successor,  but  it  is  supposed  that,  in  doing 
so,  he  will  have  supreme  regard  for  the  best  good  of  his  sub- 
jects, and  will  be  governed  by  the  will  of  Heaven,  indicated 
by  the  conferring  of  regal  gifts,  and  by  providential  circum- 
stances pointing  out  the  individual  whom  Heaven  has  chosen. 

In  governing  so  large  a realm  it  is  found  necessary  for  the 
Emperor  to  delegate  his  authority  to  numerous  officers,  who 
are  regarded  as  his  agents  and  representatives  in  carrying  out 
the  imperial  will.  What  they  do  the  Emperor  does  through 
them.  The  recognized  patriarchal  character  of  the  govern- 
ment is  seen  in  the  familiar  expressions  of  the  people,  partic- 
ularly at  times  when  they  consider  themselves  injured  or  ag- 
grieved by  their  officers,  when  they  are  apt  to  say — “ A strange 
way  for  parents  to  treat  their  children.” 

* Williams’s  “ Middle  Kingdom.” 


GS 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


The  government  of  China  is  constituted  as  follows  : 

1.  “ The  Cabinet*  consists  of  four  principal  and  two  joint 
assistant  chancellors,  half  of  them  Manchus  and  half  Chinese. 
Their  duties,  according  to  the  imperial  statutes,  are  to  deliber- 
ate on  the  government  of  the  empire,  proclaim  abroad  the 
imperial  pleasure,  regulate  the  canons  of  State,  together  with 
the  Avhole  administration  of  the  balance  of  power,  thus  aid- 
ing the  Emperor  in  directing  the  affairs  of  State.”  Subordi- 
nate to  these  six  chancellors  are  six  grades  of  officers,  amount- 
ing in  all  to  upward  of  two  hundred  persons.  The  first  chan- 
cellor in  the  list  acts  as  premier. 

2.  “ The  General  Council  is  composed  of  princes  of  the  b.lood, 
chancellors  of  the  Cabinet,  the  presidents  and  vice-presidents 
of  the  Six  Boards,  and  chief  officers  of  all  the  other  courts  in 
the  capital.  Its  duties  are  to  write  imperial  edicts  and  de- 
cisions, and  determine  such  things  as  are  of  importance  to 
the  army  and  nation,  in  order  to  aid  the  sovereign  in  regulat- 
ing the  machinery  of  affairs.”  It  is  principally  by  means  of 
this  council  that  the  Emperor  and  his  immediate  advisers  be- 
come acquainted  with  and  control  those  who  are  engaged  in 
different  departments  of  the  government  at  the  capital  and  in 
the  provinces. 

“ The  principal  executive  bodies  in  the  capital  under  these 
two  councils  are  the  Luli-pn.  or  Six  Boards,  which  are  depart- 
ments of  long  standing  in  the  government,  having  been 
modelled  on  much  the  same  plan  during  the  ancient  dynasties. 
At  the  head  of  each  board  are  two  presidents,  called  Shang- 
shu,  and  four  vice-presidents,  called  Shi-lang,  alternately  a 
Tartar  and  a Chinese ; and  over  three  of  them — those  of  rev- 
enue, Avar,  and  punishment — are  placed  superintendents,  avIio 
are  frequently  members  of  the  Cabinet.  Sometimes  the  presi- 
dent of  one  board  is  superintendent  of  another.  There  are 

* Most  of  the  contents  of  the  few  pages  which  immediately  follow  are 
abridged  from  Williams's  “ Middle  Kingdom,”  and  the  quotations  are  also 
from  the  same  author.  Persons  who  wish  to  obtain  minute  and  reliable  in- 
formation about  China  should  possess  themselves  of  this  truly  invaluable 
work. 


THE  SIX  BOARDS. 


69 


provincial  governments  are  regulated^  to  the  minutest  matter 
in  the  same  manner.  For  instance,  each  board  has  a different 
style  of  envelope  in  which  to  send  its  dispatches,  and  the  papers 
in  the  offices  are  filed  away  in  them.” 

The  following  sentence  from  Mr.  Meadows’s  book — “ The 
Rebellions  of  China” — will  give  the  reader  his  view's  with  ref- 
erence to  the  business-like  and  methodical  character  of  the 


three  subordinate  grades  of  officers  in  each  board,  who  may 
be  called  directors,  under-secretaries,  and  controllers,  with  a 
great  number  of  minor  clerks,  and  their  appropriate  depart- 
ments for  conducting  the  details  of  the  general  and  peculiar 
business  coming  under  the  cognizance  of  the  board,  the  whole 
being  arranged  and  subordinated  in  the  most  business-like 
style.  The  details  of  all  the  departments  in  the  general  and 


A CHINESE  CIVII.  OFFICEE  IN  FULL  t>KESS. 


70 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


Chinese  mind  and  institutions : “ As,  however,  all  public  busi- 

ness is,  as  a general  rule,  more  methodically  and  systematically 
conducted  in  China  than  in  England,  so  we  find,”  etc. 

3.  “ The  first  of  the  Six  Boards  is  the  Board  of  Civil  Office, 
which  regulates  the  distribution  of  officers  over  the  empire. 
Its  business  is  divided  into  four  kinds,  attended  to  by  four 
different  bureaus. 

4.  “ The  Board  of  Revenue  attends  to  the  census,  the  levy- 
ing and  collecting  of  duties,  and  the  public  granaries,  etc.  It 
is  divided  into  fourteen  dejmrtments. 

5.  “ The  Board  of  Rites  has  for  its  object  the  determining 
of  rites  and  ceremonies  for  state  occasions,  and  for  the  inter- 
course of  officers  in  the  provinces.  Subordinate  to  this  is  a 
Board  of  Music.” 

The  other  three  boards  are  the  Board  of  W ar,  the  Board  of 
Punishment,  and  the  Board  of  Public  Works. 

9.  “ The  Court  of  the  Government  of  Foreigners,  or  the  col- 
onial office,  has  reference  to  colonies  and  dependencies,  and 
intercourse  with  foreign  nations. 

10.  “ The  Censorate  is  intrusted  with  the  duty  of  exposing 
errors  and  crimes  in  every  department  of  the  government, 
and  sometimes  censors  do  not  shrink'  from  the  dangerous 
task  of  criticising  or  exposing  the  conduct  of  the  Emperor 
himself.  Special  censors  are  placed  over  each  board,  and  also 
over  provincial  officers. 

11.  “The  Court  of  Representation  receives  memorials  and 
appeals  from  the  provinces  and  presents  them  before  the  Cabi- 
net, 

12.  “ The  Court  of  Judicature  has  the  duty  of  adjusting  all 
the  different  courts  in  jlie  empire,  and  forms  the'  nearest  ap- 
proach to  a Supreme  Court,  though  the  cases  brought  before 
it  are  mostly  criminal.  When  the  crimes  involve  life,  this 
court,  with  the  Court  of  Representation  and  Censorate,  unite 
to  form  one  court;  and  if  the  judges  are  not  unanimous  in 
their  decisions  they  must  report  their  reasons  to  the  Emperor, 
who  will  pass  judgment  upon  them. 


THE  CHINESE  CODE. 


71 


13.  “The  Imperial  Academy  is  intrusted  with  the  duty 
of  drawing  up  governmental  documents,  histories,  and  other 
works.  Its  chief  officers  take  the  lead  of  the  various  classes, 
and  excite  their  exertions  to  advance  in  learning,  in  order  to  pre- 
pare them  for  employments  and  fit  them  for  attending  upon  the 

sovereign Its  chief  officers  are  two  presidents,  or  senior 

members,  who  are  usually  appointed  for  life  after  a long  course 

of  study Subordinate  to  the  two  senior  members  are  four 

grades  of  officers,  five  in  each  grade,  together  with  an  unlimit- 
ed number  of  senior  graduates,  each  forming  a sort  of  college, 
whose  duties  are  to  prepare  all  works  published  under  govern- 
mental sanction.  These  persons  are  subject  from  time  to  time 
to  fresh  examinations,  and  are  liable  to  lose  their  degrees,  or  be 
altogether  dismissed  from  office,  if  found  faulty  or  deficient.” 
It  is  regarded  as  a "high  distinction  by  the  Chinese  to  be  a 
member  of  this  academy,  and  its  objects,  organization,  and 
high  literary  character  reflect  great  honor  on  the  Chinese  gov- 
ernment. 

It  is  impossible  to  descend  into  detail  in  speaking  of  the 
provincial  governments,  or  even  to  mention  individually  the 
many  classes  of  officers  of  different,  grades  who  are  commis- 
sioned and  sent  from  the  capital  to  the  provinces  and  territo- 
ries. The  whole  business  of  the  government  is  thoroughly  and 
effectively  systematized,  and  its  influence  is  felt  in  every  re- 
mote city,  hamlet,  and  family.  Records  are  kept  of  all  matters 
of  importance.  The  Pekin  Gazette  is  published  daily,  giving 
an  account  of  the  transactions  of  the  General  Council  and  oth- 
er important  matters  of  State. 

As  the  Constitution  of  the  government  has  been  long  since 
fixed  on  a basis  laid  thousands  of  years  ago,  so  the  laws  of 
China,  which  form  the  basis  of  the  present  code,  originated 
with  the  writer  Li-Kwei,  who  lived  about  2000  years  ago. 
Additions,  alterations,  and  improvements ^avc  been  made  from 
that  time  to  this.  These  laws  are  now  classified  into  General, 
Civil,  Fiscal,  Ritual,  Military,  and  Criminal.  They  were  re- 
published in  1830  in  twenty-eight  volumes,  the  whole  being  di- 


72 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


vided  into  four  hundred  and  thirty-six  sections.  A writer  in 
the  Edinburgh  Preview,  in  an  article  on  “ Stanton’s  Translation 
of  the  Chinese  Code,”  gives  the  following  estimate  of  it: — 
“ When  we  turn  from  the  ravings  of  the  Zendavesta  or  Puranas 
to  the  tone  of  sense  and  business  in  this  Chinese  collection,  it 
is  like  passing  from  darkness  to  light,  from  the  drivellings  of 
dotage  to  the  exercise  of  an  improved  understanding ; and,  re- 
dundant and  minute  as  these  laws  are  in  many  particulars,  we 
scarcely  know  one  European  code  that  is  nearly  so  freed  from 
intricacy,  bigotry,  and  fiction.” 

The  Chinese  are  frequently  charged  with  barbarity  and 
cruelty  in  the  establishment  and  administration  of  their  laws. 
Dr.  Williams’s  testimony  on  this  point,  than  whom  we  can 
not  have  a more  competent  or  reliable  witness,  is  as  follows : 
— “ Sheer  cruelty,  except  in  cases  of  treason  against  the 
Emperor,  can  not  be  charged  against  this  code  as  a whole ; 
though  many  of  the  laws  seem  to  be  designed  to  operate 
chiefly  in  terrorem,  and  the  penalty  is  placed  higher  than 
the  punishment  really  intended  to  be  inflicted,  that  the  Em- 
peror may  have  scope  for  mercy,  or,  as  he  says,  for  1 leniency 
beyond  the  bounds  of  law.’  Some  officers  are  lenient,  others 
severe ; the  people  in  some  provinces  are  industrious  and 
peaceable,  in  others  turbulent  and  averse  to  quiet  occupa- 
tions, so  that  one  is  likely  to  form  a juster  idea  of  the  admin- 
istration of  the  empire  by  looking  at  the  results  as  seen  in 
the  general  aspects  of  society,  and  judging  of  the  tree  by  its 
fruits,  than  by  drawing  inferences  applicable  to  the  whole 
machine  of  State  from  particular  instances  of  oppression  and 
insubordination,  as  is  so  frequently  the  case  with  travellers 
and  writers.” 

With  this  general  view  of  the  Constitution  and  laws  of  the 
empire,  and  the  plan  of  education  and  literary  examinations 
described  in  a former  chapter,  we  may  now  glance  at  the  prac- 
tical workings  of  the  whole  system. 

The  Emperor  is  held  in  check  by  the  Constitution  and  laws 
of  the  empire ; a sense  of  his  responsibility,  the  constant 


PRACTICAL  WORKING  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT.  73 

watch,  influence,  and  advice  of  his  chief  officers,  and  the  con- 
sciousness that  he  too  is  amenable  to  public  opinion,  and  that 
a gross  violation  of  his  trust  would  weaken  his  influence  over 
his  people,  and  might  cost  him  his  throne.  Some  of  the  Em- 
perors of  China  have  been  men  of  high  character  and  great 
executive  ability,  worthy  of  the  position  which  they  have  oc- 
cupied ; others  have  been  weak  and  inefficient,  bearing  the 
name  and  the  insignia  of  royalty,  while  the  government  has 
been  administered  by  other  hands ; and  others  have  united  a 
powerful  will  with  a vicious  nature,  and  brought  ruin  upon 
themselves  and  their  people. 

Officers  are  restrained  from  great  excesses,  extortion,  and 
injustice  by  the  fear  of  the  people,  who  know  their  rights,  and 
sometimes  assert  them ; by  superior  officers  and  censors,  who 
exercise  watch  and  surveillance  over  them ; and  also  by  infe- 
rior officers,  who  are  waiting  anxiously  for  their  removal,  that 
they  may  be  advanced  to  occupy  their  places.  The  danger 
of  popular  and  ambitious  rulers  gaining  too  much  influence 
over  the  people,  or  forming  combinations  against  the  State 
with  others  with  whom  they  are  associated,  is  in  a great  de- 
gree prevented  by  their  constant  removal  from  one  part  of 
the  empire  to  another,  which  matter  is  carefully  attended  to 
by  the  Board  of  Civil  Office  at  Pekin.  Officers  in  the  provinces 
are  seldom  permitted  to  remain  in  one  place  more  than  three 
or  four  years.  They  are  never  sent  to  exercise  their  functions 
in  their  native  districts,  nor  are  they  allowed  to  marry  within 
the  bounds  of  their  jurisdiction. 

Literary  men,  both  under-graduates  and  graduates  of  the 
first  and  second  degrees,  occupy  an  intermediate  position  be- 
tween the  officers  and  people,  and  are  an  important  and  pow- 
erful auxiliary  to  the  government.  They  are  bound  to  it  by 
the  hope  of  becoming  officers  under  it.  They  are  also,  for  the 
most  part,  in  thorough  sympathy  with  it,  being  imbued  with 
the  spirit  of  Confucianism,  and  regarding  the  government 
as  the  embodiment  of  the  wisdom  of  their  ancient  sages. 
Their  influence  over  their  uninformed  and  uncultivated  neigh- 

D 


74 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


bors  tends  to  promote  respect  for  their  rulers  and  obedience 
to  the  laws. 

The  restraints  brought  to  bear  upon  the  people,  in  addi- 
tion to  their  sense  of  right  and  their  regard  for  their  own 
reputation  and  their  own  interests,  are  the  severity  of  their 
laws,  the  absolute  authority  of  their  rulers,  and  their  liabili- 
ty to  extortion,  often  practiced  by  officers  and  underlings 
whenever  the  people  give  occasion  for  it  by  petty  crimes,  mis- 
demeanors, and  insubordination.  When  disaffected  from 
real  or  imaginary  causes,  they  are  prevented  in  a great 
measure  from  insurrectionary  combinations,  not  only  by  the 
careful  watch  of  their  officers,  but  by  tl^p  isolation  of  different 
parts  of  the  empire,  and  the  impossibility  of  ready  communi- 
cation and  co-operation  between  the  inhabitants  of  the  vari- 
ous provinces  on  account  of  the  differences  in  their  spoken 
languages. 

But  in  extreme  cases  of  injustice  and  oppression  the  peo- 
ple are  not  without  the  means  of  redress,  and  they  know  when 
and  how  to  use  them.  Though  docile  and  yielding  to  a fault, 
neighborhoods  and  districts  sometimes  rise  in  a body  in  open 
rebellion  against  the  local  authorities,  and  assert  and  maintain 
their  rights.  When  an  officer  is  notoriously  avaricious,  exact- 
ing, and  unjust,  the  people  have  a right  to  presume  that 
he  is  acting  in  opposition  to  the  wishes  and  instructions  of 
his  sovereign.  Smarting  under  the  effect  of  some  fresh  act  of 
oppression,  they  sometimes  rise  in  a body,  and  march  to  the 
office  of  the  obnoxious  magistrate,  not  as  petitioners,  but  as 
plaintiffs  and  accusers.  It  is  not  uncommon  on  such  occa- 
sions for  the  magistrate,  laying  aside  his  dignity  of  office,  to 
come  out  and  treat  in  person  -with  the  leaders  or  spokesmen  of 
the  movement,  hearing  patiently  their  complaints  and  giving 
satisfactory  promises  of  amendment  and  redress,  after  which 
the  people  go  back  quietly  to  their  homes.  If  the  officer  is 
grievously  in  fault,  this  is  almost  sure  to  be  the  result.  Other- 
wise this  case  of  maladministration  would  probably  be  report- 
ed to  the  capital,  and  the  officer  be  summoned  to  appear  be- 


REPUBLICANISM  IN  CHINA. 


75 


fore  the  Emperor,  with  the  danger  of  losing  his  office,  if  not 
his  life. 

Sometimes  the  officer,  with  or  without  sufficient  cause,  re- 
fuses to  entertain  the  complaint  of  the  people,  and  insists  on 
their  submitting  to  his  authority,  and  is  supported  by  hie 
superiors.  In  such  an  event  a body  of  soldiers  is  sent,  if  nec- 
essary, to  quell  the  disturbance,  the  life  of  one  or  more  of  the 
leaders  is  perhaps  sacrificed  to  vindicate  the  majesty  of  the 
laws,  and  the  people  succumb  to  superior  force  and  necessity. 

When  injustice  and  corruption  are  general,  as  is  the  case  at 
the  present  time,  local  insurrections  become  frequent.  Differ- 
ent bodies  of  malcontents  unite  in  forming  serious  rebellions ; 
the  people  consider  themselves  absolved  from  their  allegiance, 
refuse  to  recognize  the  Emperor  as  the  heaven-sent  ruler  and 
tranquilizer  of  his  people,  and  all  things  tend  to  anarchy  and 
disintegration.  Thus  the  Chinese  government  rests  ultimate- 
ly upon  the  will  of  the  people.  Their  sympathy  and  support 
are  lost  by  a departure  from  the  recognized  principles  of  the 
government,  and  he  who  would  reassure  them,  and  tranquil- 
ize  the  empire,  must  give  evidence  of  his  ability  and  sinceri- 
ty, and  go  back  and  build  again  on  the  old  foundations. 

Notwithstanding  the  Chinese  government  lias  been  repre- 
sented as  an  unlimited  monarchy  and  as  an  absolute  despot- 
ism, it  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  statements  that  some 
decidedly  republican  ideas  prevail,  and  that  the  people  have 
a good  degree  of  personal  liberty?  Chinese  scholars  often 
speak  in  terms  of  the  highest  admiration  of  the  government 
of  the  United  States.  The  character  of  Washington  is  also 
much  admired  by  them,  and  a worthy  panegyric  has  been 
written  on  it  by  one  of  their  prominent*  men. 

It  is  a fact  worthy  of  special  mention  in  this  connection 
that  the  Chinese  are  allowed  to  choose  from  among  them- 
selves their  own  “ elders  ” who  form  a kind  of  imperium  in 
imperio , and  attend  to  and  relieve  the  officers  of  the  Empe- 
or  of  a great  deal  of  business.  Many  petty  differences,  mis- 
understandings, and  quarrels  are  referred  to  the  ciders  for 


76 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


arbitration,  and  thus  the  expense,  demoralization,  scandal,  and 
embittered  feelings  of  a lawsuit  are  often  avoided.  The  of- 
ficers sometimes  influence  the  people  indirectly  and  quietly 
through  the  elders,  and  on  the  other  hand,  measures  origi- 
nating in  the  will  of  the  people  are  commended  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  officers  by  the  elders. 

Sometimes  the  elders  fail  to  satisfy  and  harmonize  parties 
at  variance,  and  the  two  factions  prefer  to  settle  their  diffi- 
culties themselves ; in  other  words,  to  “ fight  it  oat,”  and 
the  authorities  allow  them  to  do  so.  This  liberty  is  granted 
when  the  quarrel  is  personal  or  local,  and  not  calculated  to  en- 
danger the  interests  of  the  community  at  large  or  weaken  the 
authority  of  the  officers,  and  when  the  questions  involved 
are  confused  and  perplexing.  The  magistrates  often  take 
“ hush-money  ” from  both  parties,  and  at  the  same  time  avoid 
any  further  trouble  in  the  matter.  A family  will  sometimes 
gather  together  its  relatives,  friends,  and  sympathizers,  and 
persons  hired  for  the  purpose,  together  constituting  a de- 
cidedly formidable  company,  and  unexpectedly  make  their 
appearance  at  the  house  of  a person  with  whom  they  are  at 
variance,  armed  with  spears  and  clubs,  and  demand  redress. 
The  attacked  party,  particularly  if  he  is  in  the  wrong,  and 
without  the  sympathy  and  support  of  friends  and  neighbors, 
is  very  apt  to  yield  and  to  accept  the  terms  imposed.  These 
demonstrations  do  not  generally  proceed  further  than  to  make 
a shoio  of  violence. 

Blustering,  reckless,  and  unprincipled  foreigners  are  some- 
times hired  in  the  vicinity  of  the  open  ports  to  take  a part  in 
these  intimidating  expeditions,  and  missionaries  have  been 
inveigled  into  the  same  business  by  professed  friends  or  in- 
quirers, by  means  of  the  specious  plea  of  going  as  “ peace- 
makers.” Sometimes  the  foreigner  is  invited  to  pay  a friend- 
ly visit,  without  suspecting  the  real  motive  of  his  host,  who 
makes  his  own  representations  with  regard  to  the  visit  to  his 
neighbors. 

A few  years  since  a large  landholder,  about  fifty  miles 


PRIVATE  QUARRELS  AND  FAMILY  FEUDS.  77 

from  Ningpo,  was  visited  by  an  armed  company  «f  the  farm- 
ers who  tilled  his  land.  They  demanded  from  him  a higher 
percentage  of  the  proceeds  of  the  soil.  The  rich  man,  having 
many  servants  in  his  establishment,  resisted  force  with  force. 
The  laborers  soon  returned  with  a larger  party,  and  the  de- 
fendant employed  additional  assistance.  This  soon  grew  to 
be  a serious  affair.  The  house  of  the  landholder  assumed  the 
appearance  of  a besieged  fortress,  and  the  movement  that  of 
a small  rebellion.  The  authorities,  for  some  reason  or  other, 
determined  not  to  interfere.  The  contest  continued  for  weeks, 
if  not  months.  The  result  in  this  case  was,  that  the  laborers 
were  obliged  to  succumb,  and  the  successful  landholder  re- 
ceived a letter  of  commendation  from  Pekin,  and  an  honorary 
title. 

The  people  being  associated  in  large  families,  and  exceed- 
ingly clannish,  family  feuds  sometimes  become  very  bitter,  and 
are  perpetuated  from  generation  to  generation.  This  is  es- 
pecially the  case  in  the  southern  part  of  China,  where  the  in- 
habitants are  more  passionate  and  turbulent.- 

The  above  facts  are  referred  to  to  show  the  practical  work- 
ings of  the  Chinese  government,  and  illustrate  its  imperfec- 
tions as  well  as  excellences. 


78 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  YI. 

THE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA. 

Importance  of  the  Study  of  the  Religions  of  China. — The  threefold  Division 
of  their  Religions  by  the  Chinese. — The  words  Religion  and  Sect  used 
in  a modified  Sense. — Different  Modes  of  understanding  and  applying 
the  Chinese  Classification. — The  Flan  adopted  in  this  Book. 

• In  order  to  a right  understanding  of  the  Chinese  character 
and  civilization,  some  knowledge  of  the  systems  of  idolatry 
which  prevail  in  the  empire,  and  of  the  religious  beliefs  of  the 
people,  is  absolutely  necessary.  It  is  no  easy  matter  to  give 
a satisfactory  classification  and  representation  of  these  re- 
ligious systems.  So  diverse,  multiplied,  and  confused  are  the 
doctrines  of  belief,  that  it  is  difficult  for  any  one  to  give  an 
intelligible  account  of  his  own  creed  or  that  of  others.  Per- 
haps the  bgst  classification  is  that  adopted  by  the  Chinese, 
who  always  speak  of  their  religious  systems  as  three,  namely, 
J u-Jviau,  Sih-Kiau , and  T au-Kiau. 

The  word  Jeiau  is  generally  used  as  a verb,  and  means 
“ to  teach.”  As  a noun,  it  means  a “ system  of  teaching.”  It 
is  the  nearest  equivalent  the  Chinese  language  affords  to  our 
word  religion,  though  it  is  much  more  general  in  its  mean- 
ing, and  may  be  applied  to  a system  of  teachings  which  has 
no  religious  element  whatever. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  when  we  use  the  terms  relig- 
ion and  sect  in  connection  with  the  Chinese,  we  do  it  in  a 
new  and  modified  sense.  Our  word  religion  always  suggests 
the  idea  of  God  and  his  worship,  and  also  a future  state  of 
blessedness  as  the  object  of  religious  faith  and  the  end  of  a 
religious  life,  while  its  associations  are  spiritual  and  heavenly. 
The  word  Idau,  however,  does  not  necessarily  bring  up  to  the 


DIVISION  OF  RELIGIONS. 


79 


Chinese  mind  any  of  the  suggestions  and  associations  which 
the  word  religion  does  to  ours.  Again,  while  there  are  three 
systems  of  teachings,  the  Chinese  are  not,  strictly  speaking, 
divided  into  different  sects.  These  systems  are  not  regarded 
as  rival  and  antagonistic,  but  co-ordinate  and  supplementary, 
and  the  people  make  use  of  them  together,  giving  to  each 
more  or  less  importance  or  prominence,  according  to  their 
preferences  or  fancies. 

Sih-Kiau  and  Tau-Kiau  may  be  literally  translated  Bud- 
dhism and  Tauism,  and  present  two  distinct  systems,  the  ori- 
gins, authors,  histories,  and  peculiarities  of  which  may  be  fully 
and  clearly  represented. 

The  first  term,  Ju-Kiau , is  more  vague  and  indefinite  in  its 
meaning  and  application,  and  is  differently  understood  by  dif- 
ferent persons. 

The  literal  translation  of  the  character  Ju  is  “scholar,” 
“ literary,”  etc.,  and  Ju-Kiau  is  sometimes  called  the  “ Relig- 
ion of  the  Learned.”  But  the  most  prominent  and  impor- 
tant of  the  forms  of  worship  prescribed  by  the  J'u-Kiau  are 
practiced  as  much  by  the  common  people  as  by  scholars,  and, 
in  fact,  are  adopted  by  the  people  universally.  It  is  evident, 
then,  that  the  term  “ Religion  of  the  Learned,”  as  a transla- 
tion for  Ju-Kiau,  is  inadmissible. 

The  Ju-Kiau  is  sometimes  represented  as  the  “State  Re- 
ligion.” The  principal  objection  to  this  term  is  that  it  would 
be  calculated  to  give  a wrong  impression,  as  it  would  have  to 
be  used  in  a new  and  unauthorized  sense,  there  being  no  re- 
ligion in  China  w’hich  is  specially  sanctioned  and  upheld  by 
the  State.  There  are  peculiar  rites  and  forms  of  worship 
practiced  exclusively  by  officers,  because  they  are  regarded 
as  specially  appropriate  to  them  as  officers.  In  addition  to 
these  official  rites,  they,  with  their  families,  adopt  very  much 
the  same  forms  of  belief  and  worship  that  the  common  peo- 
ple do. 

The  Ju-Kiau  is  most  commonly,  and  I think  with  most  rea- 
son, regarded  both  by  native  and  foreign  writers  as  synony- 


80 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


mous  with  the  teachings  of  Confucius  or  Confucianism. 
Some  would  use  this  term  in  a more  limited,  and  others  in  a 
more  general  sense — the  former  confining  it  strictly  to  the 
teachings  of  Confucius,  and  the  latter  giving  it  a new  and 
wider  signification,  and  associating  with  it  those  national  idol- 
atrous usages  and  rites  which  do  not  naturally  belong  to 
Buddhism  or  Tauism.  The  objections  to  the  use  of  this  word 
are,  that  in  the  former  sense  it  is  not  comprehensive  enough, 
and  in  the  latter  it  is  so  comprehensive  as  to  be  inappropriate, 
attributing  to  the  Chinese  sage  doctrines  and  practices  which 
originated  long  after  his  time,  and  are  strikingly  inconsistent 
with  his  teachings. 

I presume  that  the  Chinese  classification  of  their  three  sys- 
tems of  teaching  was  more  appropriate  and  accurate  in  former 
times  than  it  is  at  present,  the  forms  of  idolatrous  worship 
having  greatly  multiplied,  and  the  three  systems  having  become 
modified  and  intertwined  in  their  mutual  acting  and  reacting 
upon  each  other. 

Each  of  the  above  translations  of  the  Chinese  term  Ju-Kiau 
expresses  some  prominent  feature  or  peculiarity  of  it,  but  gives 
only  a partial  and  incomplete  view,  and  is  thus  calculated  more 
or  less  to  mislead. 

In  this  book  I have  determined,  thinking  this  course  the 
freest  from  objections,  to  regard  the  >Tii-Kiau  as  synonymous 
with  Confucianism  ; this  word  being  taken,  in  its  strict  and 
limited  sense,  as  referring  to  the  system  of  ethics,  political 
economy,  and  ancient  religious  rites  taught  by  Confucius 
and  his  predecessors.  This  first  system  having  been  treated 
of  briefly  in  the  third  and  following  chapters,  I will  take 
up  the  other  two,  Buddhism  and  Tauism,  in  the  chapters 
which  immediately  follow,  and  afterward  in  additional  chap- 
ters present  various  forms  of  belief  and  worship  which  are 
naturally  associated  with  -or  have  grown  out  of  these  relig- 
ious systems  individually,  or  have  resulted  from  them  con- 
jointly. 

Chronologically,  Tauism  should  come  next  in  order,  but 


MOHAMMEDAN  COMMUNITIES. 


81 


Buddhism  takes  the  precedence  of  it,  in  its  position  and  influ- 
ence in  the  empire,  and  accordingly  occupies  the  second  place 
in  the  Chinese  enumeration. 

Other  minor  sects  of  religionists,  which  have  not  exercised 
a decided  and  permanent  influence  on  the  Chinese  race  as  a 
whole,  need  not  be  particularly  mentioned. 

Such,  however,  is  the  prominence  of  Mohammedanism  in 
some  parts  of  the  empire  as  to  require  a special  reference.  It 
is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  China  a short  time  after 
the  death  of  Mohammed.  A few  adherents  of  this  sect  are 
now  found  in  every  part  of  the  empire.  Occasional  mosques 
are  seen  in  the  Eastern  provinces.  There  is  one  small  one  in 
Ningpo ; and  a few  years  since  I found  a rather  imposing  one 
in  Hang-chow,  and  an  interesting  class  of  persons  connected 
with  it.  In  the  north-western  part  of  the  empire  there  are 
large  Mohammedan  communities,  and  in  some  places  they  are 
said  to  form  one-third  of  the  population.  Dr.  Williams  states 
that  “ early  in  the  last  century  the  whole  number  in  the  coun- 
try was  computed  to  be  half  a million.” 

They  practice  circumcision ; observe  nominally  one  day 
in  seven  as  a day  of  rest ; proscribe  the  use  of  swine’s  flesh ; 
bear  decided  testimony  against  idolatry;  and,  like  the  Jews, 
keep  themselves  in  a great  measure  separate  from  the  rest  of 
the  population. 

They  regard  Mohammed  as  the  great  and  unrivalled  Proph- 
et of  Heaven,  while  they  assign  to  Jesus  a lower  rank,  with 
Abraham,  Moses,  and  David. 

They  have  relaxed  a good  deal  in  the  strictness  of  their  re- 
ligious observances,  and  they  conform  to  some  of  the  idola- 
trous rites  of  the  other  religious  sects. 

When  I met  them  in  Hang-chow  they  treated  me  with  the 
greatest  cordiality,  invited  me  to  examine  their  mosque  and 
to  attend  their  services,  referring  with  evident  delight  to  the 
fact  that  we  worship  the  same  God  and  Creator  of  all,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  prevailing  Chinese  idolatry.  I could  not  help  feel- 
ing, in  that  distant  land  full  of  idols  and  heathen  temples,  that, 

D 2 


82 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


notwithstanding  our  wide  and  irreconcilable  differences,  this 
was  indeed  one  strong  bond  of  sympathy. 

The  Jews  and  Roman  Catholics  of  China  will  be  particu- 
larly referred  to  in  the  latter  part  of  this  book. 


INTRODUCTION  OF  BUDDHISM. 


83 


CHAPTER  VII. ' 

BUDDHISM. 

Introduction  of  Buddhism  into  China. — Its  reputed  Founder. — Different 
Orders  of  Buddhist  Divinities. — (Peculiarities  of  Buddhism  as  it  exists 
in  different  Countries!}— Popular  Traditions  relating  to  Buddha. — Doc- 
trines and  Religious  Rites  of  Buctdhism. — Descriptions  of  Buddhist  Tem- 
ples.— Construction  of  Images. — Particular  Description  of  Temples  and 
Idol  Worship  at  Hang-chow.— Buddhist  Priests. — Organization,  of  the 
Monasteries. — Hermits  living  in  Huts  or  Caves. — Priests  confined  in 
Sealed  Rooms  or  Cells. — Acquiring  of  Merit  by  Proxy. — Buddhist 
Nunneries. 

Buddhism  is  emphatically  the  religion  of  China,  and  of  the 
whole  of  Eastern  Asia.  It  was  introduced  into  China  about 
the  year  60  of  the  Christian  era.  At  that  time  the  Emperor 
Ming-ti  sent  an  embassy  to  the  TV est  to  seek  for  religious  teach- 
ers. Some  suppose  that  this  embassy  was  suggested  by  a 
dream,  and  others  by  a saying  of  Confucius  — “In  the  TVest 
there  are  great  sages.”  It  is  not  improbable  that  a rumor  of 
Him  who  was  “ born  King  of  the  Jews  ” may  have  reached  the 
extreme  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  had  something  to  do  with  this 
movement.  However  this  may  have  been,  the  expedition  start 
ing  from  China  on  this  important  errand  proceeded  as  far  as 
India,  and  there  met  with  Buddhist  priests,  and  learned  from 
them  of  their  deity  Buddha,  their  sacred  books,  and  the  doc- 
trine of  a future  state,  and  a way  of  escape  from  sin  and  its 
consequences.  Supposing  they  had  gained  their  object,  they 
returned  home  with  this  new  god  and  new  religion  of  the  Hin- 
doos. This  was  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  into  the  East 
The  name  of  the  reputed  founder  of  this  sect  is  Shaky amu- 
ni,  who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  7th  century  b.c., 
or  earlier.  By  a life  of  contemplation,  meritorious  works,  and 


84 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


self-imposed  austerities,  lie  reached  the  condition  of  Buddha, 
that  of  “ complete  knowledge.”  The  term  in  Chinese  is  Full. 
Above  and  beyond  this  is  a higher  degree  of  development  or 
attainment,  called  Nirvana , which  is  the  highest  condition  to 
which  mortals  can  attain,  and  of  which  their  nature  is  capable. 
Here  consciousness,  personality,  and  all  wishes  and  desires  are 
lost  in  an  ideal  existence,  and  all  relations  and  intercourse 
with  the  material  world  cease.  Buddha,  denying  himself  the 
pleasures  of  this  superior  unconscious  state,  pauses  on  the  con- 
fines of  it  to  give  exercise  to  his  benevolence  in  instructing 
and  elevating  men.  ^ 

There  is  an  inferior  grade  of  divinities  which  have  not  yet 
reached  the  condition  of  Buddha,  and  are  called  Foosa.  They 
are  still  imperfect  in  knowledge  and  virtue,  though  far  in  ad- 
vance of  ordinary  men.  As  they  are  nearer  mankind  in  the 
scale  of  being,  they  are  supposed  to  be  in  closer  sympathy 
with  him,  more  intimately  acquainted  with  his  circumstances, 
and  more  approachable.  For  this  reason  they  are  most  wor- 
shiped by  the  people. 

Buddhism  has  assumed  different  forms  in  different  coun- 
tries. A distinction  is  made  between  Southern  Buddhism  as  it 
is  found  in  Ceylon,  Burmah,  and  Siam,  and  Northern,  as  found 
in  Thibet  and  China.  The  religious  books  of  Northern  Bud- 
dhism are  in  Sanscrit,  or  are  translations  from  Sanscrit.  Those 
of  Southern  Buddhism  are  in  Pah,  a language  of  more  recent 
origin.  The  Northern  Buddhists  have  also  added  books,  le- 
gends, and  deities  which  are  not  known  elsewhere. 

In  Thibet  t*his  system  is  connected  with  a religious  hie- 
rarchy, exercising  political  power,  at  the  head  of  which  is  the 
Grand  Lama,  who  is  regarded  as  the  incarnation  of  Buddha. 
When  the  Grand  Lama  dies,  the  priests  fix  upon  some  infant 
into  whose  body  the  spirit  of  the  deceased  lama  is  supposed 
to  have  passed,  and  the  infant  becomes  the  next  Grand  Lama. 

In  China  no  such  religious  hierarchy  has  been  tolerated,  and 
Buddhism  exists  without  lamas.  The  Buddhism  of  Mongo- 
lia partakes  of  the  character  of  that  of  Thibet.  That  of  Corea, 


BUDDHISTIC  TRADITIONS. 


85 


Japan,  and  Cochin  China  has  evidently  been  copied  from 
China. 

With  these  general  statements,  I will  confine  myself  strictly 
to  Buddhism  in  China,  speaking  of  its  practical  aspects  as  it 
is  believed  and  practiced  by  the  people  at  present,  and  is  in- 
corporated with  their  religious  and  social  life.  y'- 

/The  popular  .traditions  of  the  Chinese  relating  to  Buddha 
are  of  that  marvellous  character  calculated  to  work  upon  the 
imagination  and  blind  faith  of  an  ignorant  people.  He  is  rep- 
resented as  having  been  born  in  a regal  palace,  an  heir  to  lux- 
ury and  power,  which  had  no  charms  to  attract  him.  It  is  be- 
lieved that,  on  his  appearance  in  the  world,  a halo  of  glory  en- 
circled him,  which  was  visible  throughout  all  the  surrounding 
country,  and  the  earth  around  him  spontaneously  produced  a 
profusion  of  lotus  flowers.  One  of  the  first  acts  which  he 
performed  was  that  of  walking  seventeen  steps  toward  the 
North,  South,  East  and  West,  with  one  hand  pointing  toward 
heaven  and  the  other  toward  the  earth,  declaring,  in  a loud 
voice — “ In  heaven  and  earth  there  is  not  another  greater  than 
I.”  Many  accounts  are  given  of  his  remarkable  strength  and 
natural  endowments,  so  exceedingly  overwrought  that  they 
might  be  expected  to  excite  the  suspicion  of  the  most  credu- 
lous. He  left  his  home  at  an  early  age  to  lead  the  life  of  a 
recluse,  and,  after  years  of  self-imposed  austerity,  attained  to 
the  perfection  of  virtue  and  ascended  to  heaven  as  a god, 
leaving  many  remarkable  proofs  of  his  superhuman  power. 

The  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  Buddhist  system  are 
a belief  in  a benevolent  deity,  associated  -with  inferior  ones, 
whose  special  object  and  care  it  is  to  save  men  from  sin  and 
its  consequences,  and  also  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration 
of  souls,  and  the  efficacy  of  good  works.  In  accordance  with 
these  doctrines,  the  religious  or  idolatrous  rites  of  Buddhism 
consist  in  prayers  to  these  gods,  works  of  merit  and  austeri- 
ty, and  provision  for  the  anticipated  wants  of  the  spirit  in 
Hades,  and  also  for  deceased  relatives  and  friends. 

Temples  erected  to  the  worship  of  this  deity  are  found  in 


86 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


every  part  of  the  empire,  and  are  numerous,  costly,  and  im- 
posing. We  see  in  China  the  same  disposition  manifested  by 
other  nations  of  the  past,  to  perform  idolatrous  ceremonies  in 
“ high  places.”  The  theory  of  Buddhism  requires  its  temples 
to  be  built  in  retired  situations  among  the  hills,  for  the  sake 
of  the  quiet  and  seclusion  which  such  places  afford.  Accord- 
ingly, most  of  the  buildings  connected  with  this  sect  which 
are  not  erected  in  cities  and  towns  for  the  convenience  of 
the  inhabitants,  are  found  in  the  most  beautiful  and  romantic 
situations  which  the  country  affords.  The  largest  of  them 
are,  to  a certain  extent,  built  on  a common  fixed  planjwhich 
may  be  described  as  follows  : 

They  are  composed  of  several  sep'arate  buildings  in  a line 
directly  back  of  the  front  one.  If  the  nature  of  the  ground 
admits  of  it,  each  building  in  the  rear  rises  several  feet  above 
the  one  before  it,  and  is  reached  by  a flight  of  stone  steps. 
The  paths  leading  to  these  temples  are  often  disposed  with 
much  taste  and  art,  winding  through  beautiful  groves  of  pine 
and  bamboo,  over  fine  arched  bridges,  along  luxuriant  hedges 
and  fish-ponds,  and  affording  oftentimes  beautiful  views  of 
natural  scenery. 

Entering  the  wide  front  door  of  the  first  building,  you  see 
before  you  a large  image  in  a sitting  posture,  its  face  bearing 
the  expression  of  a contemptuous  smile.  This  idol  is  called 
Mi  leh-fuh  • its  office  is  to  guard  the  entrance  to  the  temple, 
and  it  is  smiling  at  the  foolishness  of  mankind  avIio  spend 
their  lives  in  the  vain  pursuit  of  worldly  pleasures.  Immedi- 
ately behind  this  image,  and  facing  the  back  opening  or  door, 
is  a standing  figure,  dressed  in  mail  from  head  to  foot,  and 
holding  in  the  hand  a large  battle-club.  This  image  is  called 
T Vei-to  Poo-scih,  and  is  regarded  as  the  guardian  deity  of  the 
temple,  protecting  it  from  evil  spirits,  thieves,  etc.  The  spa- 
cious interior  of  this,  as  well  as  the  other  buildings,  is  undi- 
vided by  partitions  or  upper  floors ; the  roof  is  supported  by 
numerous  large  pillars.  Besides  the  two  images  in  the  middle 
above  described,  there  are  four  others,  called  the  Sz-kin-kang , 


GATE- WAV  OF  ; UDDIIIST  TE.MFEE  ME  Alt  OAMTO.N 


I 


« 


- 


THE  “GREAT,  GLORIOUS,  PRECIOUS  TEMPLE.”  89 

or  “ Four  Golden  Heroes.”  They  are  very  large,  and  in  a 
standing  posture,  two  being  on  each  side  of  the  building. 
One,  holding  a large  umbrella  in  his  hands,  is  called  To  icen 
tien  hwang,  or  “ The  All-hearing  Heaven  King,”  and  it  is  said 
that  when  he  spreads  his  umbrella  it  darkens  heaven  and  earth. 
The  one  with  a large  guitar  is  called  Tsang  dicing  tien  hwang, 
or  “ Add-length  Heaven  King,”  probably  with  reference  to 
his  power  of  conferring  longevity.  • He  is  supposed  to  awe 
and  subdue  evil  spirits  and  demons  by  touching  the  chords 
of  his  instrument.  One,  holding  in  his  hand  a sword,  and 
having  a fearful  countenance,  is  called  Chi  Icwoli  tien  lmang , 
or  “ Grasp-empire  Heaven  King.”  The  remaining  one,  who 
is  represented  as  holding  in  his  hands  a dragon,  and  trampling 
under  his  feet  snakes  and  reptiles,  is  called  the  Kwang  muh 
tien  hwang , or  “ Clear-eyed  Heaven  King.”  These  four  gods 
are  regarded  as  the  protectors  of  the  people  generally,  and 
particularly  of  those  who  believe  in  Fuh. 

The  second  building  is  larger  than  the  first,  generally  about 
seventy  feet  deep,  ninety  feet  wide,  and  forty  or  fifty  feet  high, 
though  sometimes  larger.  It  is  called  the  “ Great,  Glorious, 
Precious  Temple.”  Its  chief  deities  are  three  large  images  of 
Fuh,  called  the  Past,  the  Future,  and  the  Present  Fuh ; also 
the  “ Three  Precious  Ones.”  They  are  situated  in  the  middle 
of  the  building,  in  a line  facing  the  front  door,  and  are  repre- 
sented as  sitting  on  large  high  pedestals,  surrounded  by  lotus 
flowers.  In  front  of  these  immense  images,  which  are  gener- 
ally about  twenty  feet  high,  is  a tablet  inscribed  to  the  Em- 
peror, no  doubt  to  secure  his  favor  to  the  sect.  On  the  two 
sides  of  this  building  may  be  seen  either  the  eighteen  lo-han, 
persons  who  are  supposed  to  be  absorbed  into  Fuh,  or  the 
twenty-eight  Sing-sin,  which  represent  different  stars.  All 
these  are  human  figures  about  as  large  as  life.  Immediately 
in  front  of  the  three  large  images  of  Fuh  is  generally  seen  a 
standing  veiled  image  of  Kwan-slii-yin  Poo-sah,  one  of  the 
principal  Buddhist  deities,  which  is  represented  as  a young 
virgin,  and  is  executed  in  the  best  style  of  Chinese  art.  This 


90 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


goddess  is  supposed  to  have  appeared  on  the  earth  at  differ- 
ent times,  and  in  different  forms  and  characters.  She  is  wor- 
shiped as  the  Sung-ts  neang-neang,  or  “ Conferrer  of  Sons;” 
the  “ Thousand-handed  Kwan-yin ,”  the  “ Seven-faced  Kwan- 
yin and  also  as  a male  deity  of  the  same  name.  The  “ Confer- 
rer of  Sons  ” is  generally  represented  with  a child  in  her  arms. 
This  female  deity  is  the  one  in  which  the  Roman  Catholics 
have  recognized  such  a strong  resemblance  to  the  Virgin 
Mary  as  to  attribute  its  existence  to  Satanic  agency.  It  is  ev- 
ident that  the  natives  are  in  a measure  acquainted  with  this 
dislike  of  the  Romanists,  as  it  is  reported  among  the  people 
that  they  “ hate  Kt can- s h i-yin  because  she  killed  Jesus.”  Be- 
hind the  three  large  images  of  Buddha  you  sometimes  see 
the  thousand-handed  Kwan-yin , or  the  Sung-ts  neang-neang 
mentioned  above,  and  sometimes  one  of  a variety  of  other 
idols.  In  the  back  part  of  this  main  building  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  find  a separate  shrine  erected  to  the  God  of  War,  and 
to  other  favorite  objects  of  worship. 

In  the  larger  temples  a third  building  is  generally  found, 
about  the  size  of  the  second.  This  is  used  as  a “Worship 


TORTURES  OF  HELL. 


91 


Hall  ” for  the  priests.  Less  space  is  occupied  by  the  images, 
and  more  is  reserved  for  worshipers. 

Besides  the  buildings  mentioned  above,  in  many  temples 
others  are  addech/'  The  idols  which  they  contain  are  very  nu- 
merous, and  in  the  disposition  of  them  no  regular  order  is 
observed.  Most  of  them  represent  persons  who  are  supposed 
to  have  been  absorbed  into  Buddha,  of  which  class  there  are 
in  all  more  than  five  hundred.  Some  are  taken  from  the 
popular  deities  of  the  people,  and  some  even  from  the  gods  of 
Tauism.  All  these  gods  have  their  fabulous  legends,  which, 
though  they  might  interest  the  curious,  it  would  be  as  impos- 
sible as  useless  to  give  here.  Sometimes  lower  side  buildings 
are  erected  and  divided  into  apartments,  which  are  occupied 
by  smaller  images  of  all  sorts  and  appearances,  from  one  to 
two,  three,  or  more  feet  in  height.  Several  hundred  of  these 
images  may  be  found  in  the  same  building.  It  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  see  in  these  side  apartments  several  roams  represent- 
ing the  different  divisions  and  tortures  of  hell.  The  god  Ti 
tsang  hwcing , “ Earth-concealed  King,”  is  supposed  to  preside 
over  these  regions.  It  is  said  that  he  was  unwilling  to  be- 
come Buddha  until  he  had  rescued  all  the  spirits  in  hell. 


92 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


Side  buildings  are  also  erected  for  the  accommodation  of 
the  priests,  generally  with  an  upper  story.  The  dining-room 
is  often  large  enough  to  seat  several  hundred  persons,  and  the 
kitchen  is  supplied  with  kettles,  some  of  which  will  hold  two 
or  three  barrels. 

Some  of  the  temples  have  pagodas  connected  with  them. 


PAGODA. 


These  are  towers  or  monuments,  substantially  built  of  stone 
or  brick,  varying  in  height  from  eighty  to  two  hundred 
feet  or  more.  They  form  a very  characteristic  and  beautiful 
feature  in  Chinese  landscapes.  Many  of  them  show  evidences 
of  great  antiquity.  They  were  probably  built  originally  to  be 
the  repositories  of  some  revered  relics,  or  to  commemorate 


WHAT  THE  IDOLS  REPRESENT. 


93 


some  noted  person.  Occasionally,  though  not  generally,  they 
contain  idola. 

In  small  towns  and  places  without  the  means  for  building  a 
large  temple  the  principal  Buddhist  idols  are,  by  being  made 
of  a smaller  size,  grouped  together  in  one  building,  and  made 
to  answer  the  purposes  of  those  who  may  not  have  the  time 
or  money  requisite  for  going  far  from  home  to  worship  in  a 
larger  temple. 

The  idols  are  manufactured  of  the  different  metals,  or  of 
stone,  or  wood,  or  clay.  The  largest  are  made  of  a frame- 
work of  wood  covered  with  mortar,  and  are  generally  gilded 
on  the  outside  with  gold-leaf,  though  in  some  cases  they  are 
painted  with  different  colors.  It  is  considered  essential  that 
each  one,  large  or  small,  should  be  supplied  with  artificial  en- 
trails, which  are  lodged  in  the  body  through  a hole  in  the 
back.  These  represent  the  living  spirit,  without  which  the 
god  would  be  regarded  as  worthless^  They  consist  generally 
of  representations  in  silver  of  the  heart  and  other  internal 
parts  of  the  body.  Sometimes  pearls  and  precious  stones,  or 
live  snakes  or  reptiles,  are  either  substituted  or  added.  This 
fact  furnished  a weighty  reason  for  the  iconoclastic  practices 
of  the  Tai-ping  insurgents  of  China,  in  addition  to  their  pro- 
fessed hatred  and  contempt  for  idolatry.  These  images  are 
generally  well-executed  as  to  their  forms  and  postures.1,  £_It  is 
worthy  of  notice,  as  indicative  of  the  character  of  the  people 
and  the  art  with  which  Satan  suits  the  forms  of  idolatry  to 
the  minds  of  his  deluded  victims,  that  there  is  nothing  horrid 
or  indecent  in  the  appearance  of  any  of  the  idols  of  China, 
and  none  are  represented  as  influenced  by  debasing  passions  ; 
all  are  supposed  to  be  virtuous  men,  or  heroes  of  the  past. 
They  have  also  less  of  sameness  in  their  appearance  than 
might  be  expected,  as  they  present  in  different  degrees  and 
combinations  the  expressions  of  love,  pity,  mirth,  thoughtful- 
ness, fierceness,  and  anger.) 

. The  general  appearance  of  a large  Buddhist  temple  or  mon- 
astery is  grand  and  imposing,  calculated  to  inspire  in  the 


94 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


minds  of  the  vulgar  feelings  of  reverence  and  awe.  The  struct- 
ure of  the  buildings  indicates  also  not  a little  architectural 
taste  and  skill.  They  are  well-proportioned,  and  in  each  one 
the  plan  of  the  interior  is  suited  to  the  size  and  number  of  the 
idols  which  it  is  to  contain.  The  large  roof  is  generally  made 
of  the  best  tiling  materials,  and  will  last  more  than  half  a 
century  without  repair.  It  is  covered  with  fretted-work,  and 
grotesque  figures  of  elephants,  lions,  horses,  men,  etc.  The 
interior  is  ornamented  with  elaborate  carvings  in  wood  and 
stone ; and  a great  variety  of  inscriptions  on  the  walls  and  pil- 
lars, and  over  the  heads  of  the  idols,  written  in  large  gilt  let- 
ters, serve  at  the  same  time  the  purposes  of  decoration  and  of 
setting  forth  the  names,  characters,  and  powers  of  the  differ- 
ent divinities. 

A short  description  of  Buddhist  temples  and  worship  in 
ilang-chow,  one  of  the  great  centres  of  Buddhist  influence  in 
China,  may  serve  to  give  a livelier  and  more  satisfactory  view 
of  the'  character  of  Buddhism  and  its  practical  workings. 
This  is  one  of  the  provincial  capitals,  and  contained  before  it 
was  taken  by  the  rebels  about  one  million  of  inhabitants.  It 
is  a place  deservedly  renowned  among  the  Chinese  for  its 
great  natural  beauty,  which  is  often  alluded  to  in  the  couplet, 
Slicing  yiu  tien  tang , hia  yiu  Su  Hang — “Above  is  heaven,  be- 
low are  Su-chow  and  Hang-chow.”  This  city  and  its  suburbs 
are  full  of  Buddhist  temples,  but  the  most  noted  of  them  are 
among  the  hills  and  mountains  bounding  the  city  on  the  south 
and  west.  They  are  to  be  found  in  the  most  romantic  nooks 
of  the  valleys,  perched  half-way  up  the  mountain-sides,  or 
crowning  a hill-top  a few  hundred  or  a thousand  feet  high. 

Passing  out  from  the  south-western  gate  of  the  city  in  the 
direction  of  the  mountains,  a short  distance  from  the  wall  you 
meet  with  a note1?!  temple,  called  the  Tsing-z.  The  buildings 
described  in  the  previous  part  of  this  chapter  are  unusually 
large.  This  monastery  was  principally  noted,  however,  for  a 
side  building  containing  the  five  hundred  disciples  of  Buddha 
complete.  These  are  all  as  large  as  a full-grown  man,  finely 


A FASHIONABLE  WATERING-PLACE. 


95 


executed,  and  covered  with  gold-leaf.  Each  one  occupied  a 
platform  about  six  or  eight  feet  square.  The  size  of  the  whole 
building  affording  this  area  for  each  image,  and  passages  or 
aisles  between  them,  may  be  imagined,  and  this  was  but  an 
inferior  and  subsidiary  part  of  the-  temple.  I saw  a similar 
temple,  containing  these  five  hundred  images  in  one  hall,  in 
the  city  of  Canton. 

About  three  miles  from  the  city,  ih  one  of  the  valleys,  is  the 
Tien-coli-z — “ The  Temple  of  India.”  This  is  very  beautiful  in 
its  architecture  and  location,  but  its  principal  attraction  is  a 
curious  subterranean  passage,  forming  part  of  the  path  to  the 
temple.  It  is  said  and  believed  that  the  hill  covering  this 
passage  was  transported  from  India  in  the  night,  and  deposit- 
ed here.  Hence  the  name,  “ The  Temple  of  India.” 

About  ten  miles  from  the  city  is  a temple,  which  contained 
when  I visited  it  about  five  hundred  priests.  It  is  reached 
by  a beautiful  avenue  nearly  two  miles  long,  winding  through 
a deep  valley  by  the  side  of  a clear  mountain  stream,  and 
overarched  by  groves  of  pine  and  bamboo.  The  temple  was 
composed  of  a large  number  of  different  buildings,  connected 
with  each  other  by  such  various  and  intricate  passages  that  a 
stranger  without  a guide  was  in  danger  of  being  lost  in  them. 
This  was  a kind  of  fashionable  watering-place,  a ■favorite  re- 
sort for  wealthy  families  in  the  summer.  Several  of  the 
buildings  were  occupied  with  apartments  for  the  entertain- 
ment of  these  visitors.  Here  wealthy  families  would  spend 
weeks,  enjoying  the  quiet  repose  of  the  country  and  the  de- 
lightful mountain  scenery,  hiring  a hall  of  worship  and* a com- 
pany of  priests  to  chant  prayers  for  the  repose  of  the  spirit  of 
a deceased  parent,  or  for  the  prolongation  of  the  life  of  a par- 
ent living,  or  for  some  other  desired  blessing.  It  was  not 
unusual  for  such  families  when  leaving  the  temple,  after  pay- 
ing roundly  and  perhaps  ostentatiously  for  their  other  ex- 
penses, to  provide  for  the  illumination,  by  means  of  a large 
number  of  lamps,  of  the  whole  or  part  of  the  avenue  leading 
to  the  temple. 


96 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


There  are  more  than  a score  of  temples  in  this  one  locality, 
some  of  which  are  hardly  less  noted  than  those  I have  de- 
scribed. During  the  six  months  which  I spent  at  this  place 
in  1859,  I had  an  opportunity  to  witness  the  crowds  of  pil- 
grims who  come  here  to  worship  in  the  spring.  The  canals 
leading  to  the  city  were  filled  for  miles  in  some  directions 
with  the  boats  of  worshipers,  many  of  whom  had  come  long 
distances  to  pay  their  homage  at  these  sacred  shrines.  The 
numerous  paved  roads  or  paths  winding  through  the  valleys 
in  eveiy  direction  were  occupied  by  an  almost  continuous 
stream  of  visitors,  the  rich  in  sedans  and  the  poor  on  foot. 
The  air  was  loaded  with  the  fragrance  of  the  spring  azalias, 
flowering  shrubs,  and  the  evergreens  of  different  kinds  which 
shaded  the  graves  of  the  previous  inhabitants  of  that  vast 
city,  millions  of  whom  have  found  their  last  resting-place  on 
these  lovely  hill-sides.  Old  women,  tottering  on  their  small 
feet  and  supported  by  their  staffs,  were  making  their  last 
visits  to  these  renowned  temples,  their  last  effort  to  prepare 
for  a future  state,  and  were  then  going  home  to  die,  ignorant, 
alas ! both  of  the  character  of  that  state  and  the  preparation 
for  it. 

As  we  approached  some  of  these  temples  we  found  the 
roadside  lined  with  beggars  of  a peculiar  character.  They 
were  all  diseased,  and  seemed  to  be  gathered  from  every  part 
of  the  country,  to  take  advantage  of  this  great  concourse  of 
religiously-disposed  people  to  appeal  to  their  sympathies. 
The  tremulous  and  withered  hand  of  age  was  extended  with 
the  prayer — “ Do  good  deeds.”  Sightless  balls,  uplifted,  ap- 
pealed for  charity,  while  the  lips  pronounced  the  blessing — 
“May  you  live  a hundred  years.”  Swollen  limbs,  frightful 
sores  of  every  description,  and  the  stumps  of  legs  literally 
rotted  off,  were  obtruded  upon  the  gaze  of  the  traveller,  har- 
rowing up  the  feelings,  and  making  the  heart  sick. 

Entering  the  temples,  the  sight  was  hardly  less  distressing. 
The  people  mad  upon  their  idols ; the  priests  rapidly  gather- 
ing in  their  ill-gotten  gains ; old  and  youug,  with  earnest  and 


THE  BUDDHIST  PRIESTS. 


97 


anxious  countenances,  pouring  out  the  burdens  of  their  hearts 
before  idol  gods,  and  bowing  down  and  striking  their  fore- 
heads on  the  paved  floor  so  as  to  make  a sound  audible  at 
some  little  distance.  The  impression  produced  upon  my 
mind  by  that  visit,  and  the  conflicting  emotions  excited,  I 
shall  never  forget.  These  retired  solitudes,  thronged  with  the 
living  and  peopled  with  the  dead ; the  bright  sky,  the  balmy 
air,  luxuriant  nature,  and  a beautiful  landscape,  and  this  scene 
of  beauty  overspread  with  a pall  of  moral  darkness  which 
might  be  felt ; sin,  sorrow,  disease,  death ; man,  the  noblest 
work  of  God,  blinded,  debased,  perverted,  without  one  ray  of 
light,  without  any  knowledge  of  the  only  living  and  true  God 
and  Jesus  Christ,  the  only  name  “ under  heaven  given  among 
men  whereby  we  must  be  saved. 

(Xhe  priests  of  Buddhism  generally  become  such  at  an 
early  age,  either  because  they  have  lost  their  parents,  or  be- 
cause their  parents  are  unable  to  support  them,  or  because 
they  are  born  under  an  unlucky  star,  and  for  time-tellers  pre- 
dict that  they  will  be  delicate  and  short-lived.  Of  those  who 
become  priests  in  after-life  some  are  led  to  this  step  by  the 
loss  of  their  parents,  or  of  their  wives  and  children  ; some  by 
domestic  difficulties,  some  by  idleness,  and  some  take  advant- 
age of  the  retirement  and  disguise  of  the  priesthood  to  escape 
the  punishment  of  their  crimes.  The  number  of  those  who 
really  understand  and  believe  the  doctrines  of  Buddhism,  and 
enter  the  priesthood  to  obtain  any  advantage  except  that  of 
having  rice  to  eat,  is  very  small.  Accordingly,  they  show  little 
attachment  to  their  order,  and  generally  apologize  for  becoming 
priests  by  saying  they  had  brothers  to  take  care  of  their  parents ; 
and  for  continuing  such  by  saying  that  they  have  now  no  other 
way  to  obtain  a living.  When  a child  enters  a monastery  as  a 
priest  he  is  placed  under  the  charge  of  an  older  priest  as  his  pre- 
ceptor, whose  duty  it  is  to  teach  his  pupil  letters.  In  rare  in- 
stances priests  attend  to  this  duty  themselves ; sometimes  they 
send  their  pupils  to  study  for  a time  with  other  children  in 
the  schools  of  the  country.  The  most  of  priests,  however,  grow 

E 


98 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


up  unacquainted  with  letters,  and  exceedingly  ignorant.  They 
generally  assent  to  every  thing  we  say,  and  only  defend  their 
own  religion  by  saying  that  it  is,  after  all,  identical  with  ours. 
.They  take  vows  of  celibacy,  profess  to  live  on  a vegetable  diet, 
and  wear  no  clothes  made  of  wool  or  the  skins  of  animals,  as 

they  consider  it  a crime  to  take 
away  animal  life.  They  also 
shave  the  whole  head,  and  wear 
garments  peculiar  to  their  order. 
Many  of  them  have  marksburned 
upon  their  heads  or  arms,  as  the 
means  and  evidence  of  merit. 
Not  a few  have  one  of  their  fin- 
gers burned  off  for  the  same  rea- 
son. There  are  unimportant  dis- 
tinctions in  different  schools  of 
priests,  with  slight  differences 
in  dress  and  forms  of  worship, 
which  it  is  not  worth  while  to 
mention  here  particularly.'^-'" 
Each  large  monastery  has  its 
superior  and  overseer,  which  sta- 
tions are  filled  by  priests  distinguished  for  their  influence 
and  intelligence.  They  are  chosen  by  persons  outside  of  the 
priesthood,  who  act  as  a board  of  managers.  Some  of  the 
younger  priests  are  engaged  to  a certain  extent  in  servile  em- 
ployments about  the  monastery  or  in  tilling  the  soil,  but  these 
duties  are  for  the  most  part  performed  by  hired  laborers, 
while  the  priests  lead  a life  of  ease  and  indolence.  Some 
spend  the  most  of  their  lives  in  the  same  monastery,  but  not 
a few  have  a roving  propensity,  and  have  travelled  over  the 
most  or  all  of  the  eighteen  provinces.  They  easily  beg  their 
way  as  they  go,  and  find  convenient  lodgings  in  the  monas- 
teries of  their  own  order.  They  generally  carry  with  them  a 
passport  or  recommendation  from  a superior  with  whom  they 
are  acquainted.  Without  this,  however,  the  laws  of  their  or- 


BUDDHIST  nilEST. 


INCOMES  OF  THE  MONASTERIES. 


99 


der  give  them  the  privilege  of  stopping  at  any  place  for  rest 
and  refreshment.  When  they  choose  to  remain  for  a time  at 
any  monastery,  they  can  do  so  if  there  is  a vacant  place  for 
them,  and  they  are  sufficiently  well  recommended  to  obtain  it. 

The  best  recommendation  consists  in  qualifications  for 
earning  money.  Each  monastery  is  regarded  as  a large  house- 
hold. The  wants  of  all  are  provided  for  by  the  superior,  and, 
when  priests  earn  money,  part  of  it  goes  to  the  establishment, 
and  part  is  kept  by  themselves.  In  consequence  of  the  trav- 
elling propensities  of  these  priests,  large  monasteries  present 
striking  instances  of  the  confusion  of  tongues,  and  oftentimes 
priests  can  not  understand  each  other  without  a third  person 
to  act  as  interpreter.  The  number  of  priests  in  these  estab- 
lishments varies  from  one  to  several  hundreds,  and  is  regu- 
lated by  the  size  and  resources  of  each  particular  monastery. 

The  incomes  of  the  monasteries  are  derived  from  the  vol- 
untary contributions  of  the  people,  money  paid  to  the  priests 
in  remuneration  for  their  services  at  funerals,  etc.,  the  pro- 
ceeds of  public  worship  in  the  monastery,  and  the  proceeds 
of  the  lands  with  which  many  of  them  have  been  endowed. 
The  specific  duties  of  the  priesthood  are  chanting  and  per- 
forming different  ceremonies  in  the  temples,  performing  idol- 
atrous ceremonies  among  the  people,  and  begging. 

The  chanting  of  regular  formal  services  is  performed 
morning  and  evening,  partly  in  the  native  and  partly  in  the 
Sanscrit  tongue,  and  is  learned  from  books  and  by  imitation. 
It  is  carried  on  in  connection  with  the  burning  of  incense  and 
candles,  prostrations,  the  beating  of  drums  and  bells  and 
balls  of  wood,  etc.,  and  pacing  backward  and  forward  in 
front  of  the  idols.  The  whole  exercise  lasts  about  an  hour. 
In  case  a monastery  is  out  of  repair,  or  money  is  needed  for 
any  other  purpose,  priests  are  often  sent  to  raise  subscrip- 
tions from  door  to  door.  Wealthy  individuals,  and  some- 
times officers,  give  large  sums  for  repairing  temples,  influ- 
enced partly  by  a desire  to  be  seen  and  praised  of  men,  and 
partly  by  the  hope  of  securing  happiness  in  a future  state. 


100 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


Connected  with  most  of  the  large  Buddhist  establishments 
there  are  some  priests,  distinguished  from  their  class  by  liv- 
ing in  rude  huts  or  caves  among  the  hills  in  the  greatest  re- 
tirement and  austerity.  Their  time  is  spent  in  keeping  the 
taper  lighted  before  their  gods,  reciting  their  chants,  cooking  ' 
their  simple  meals,  and  idleness.  While  professing  to  seek 
this  retirement  for  the  sake  of  meditation,  they  seem  almost 
to  lose  their  power  of  thinking,  and  spend  their  time  in  list- 
less indifference  to  every  thing  around  them.  They  are  sup- 
ported by  the  contributions  of  friends  and  temple-worship- 
ers, and  supplies  from  the  monastery  with  which  they  are 
connected.  It  is  commonly  reported  and  believed  that  those 
who  live  thus  attain  to  great  longevity,  and  require  very  little 
sustenance  to  support  life. 

There  are  other  priests  who  spend  their  time  in  closed 
rooms  or  cells.  These  are  found  principally  in  the  larger 
monasteries.  They  commence  their  secluded  life  with  consid- 
erable formality.  On  an  appointed  day  they  enter  the  room 
or  rooms  which  are  to  be  their  future  abode,  and  all  the  doors 
are  sealed  by  numerous  strips  of  paper,  on  which  are  written 
large  characters,  stating  the  day  when  the  confinement  com- 
menced and  how  long  it  is  to  continue.  Only  one  small  hole 
is  left  in  the  wall,  through  which  articles  are  handed  in  and 
out. 

Here  the  blind  devotee  immures  himself  for  years,  and  per- 
haps for  life.  Priests  sometimes  take  refuge  in  these  cloistered 
cells  to  escape  punishment  after  having  broken  their  vows  by 
the  commission  of  crimes.  Rich  men,  believing  it  important  to 
lay  up  a store  of  merit,  and  at  the  same  time  being  too  much 
engaged  in  laying  up  other  treasures  to  do  it  for  themselves, 
sometimes  make  an  arrangement  with  a priest  as  follows: 
The  man  of  wealth  agrees  to  give  him  a certain  amount  of 
money  for  living  in  a state  of  confinement  for  a stipulated 
time,  providing  him  at  the  same  time  with  his  food : the 
priest  on  his  part  promises  to  perform  numberless  prayers  and 
prostrations,  and  at  the  expiration  of  the  prescribed  period 


101 


“THE  young  priest.” 

part  of  the  merit  is  made  over  to  his  employer,  and  part  of  it 
is  retained  by  himself.  Priests  of  this  class  are  favored  with 
many  visits  from  curious  people,  who  visit  the  temple  and 
carry  on  no  small  amount  of  gossip  with  them  through  the 
hole  of  their  prison. 

There  is  a class  of  persons  who  escape  the  vows  and  austeri- 
ties of  the  priesthood  bjfc.  the  following  compromise.  Num- 
bers are  devoted  by  the  fortune-teller  to  the  life  of  a recluse, 
whose  parents  are  too  superstitious  to  disregard  the  decree, 
and  have  too  much  parental  affection  to  give  up  their  child. 
In  such  cases  the  parents  choose  a priest  who  is  willing  to 
sustain  the  relation  of  master  to  the  child  : the  child  as  pupil 
pays  his  respects  and  worship  to  his  chosen  teacher ; pres- 
ents are  exchanged ; and  the  boy  is  henceforth  regarded  as 
nominally  the  disciple  of  the  priest.  lie  is  permitted,  howev- 
er, to  stay  at  home,  and  live  in  all  respects  as  ordinary  men, 
except  that  he  is  often  called,  by  way  of  pleasantry  or  ridicule, 
“ the  young  priest,”  and  occasionally  exchanges  presents 
with  his  master. 


BUDDHIST  NUN  WITH  CAP  AND  ROSARY. 


102 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


Connected  with  Buddhism  there  is  a large  number  of  nuns 
and  nunneries.  With  regard  to  the  worship  performed  in 
these  institutions,  the  manner  in  which  they  are  supported  and 
their  affairs  conducted,  they  differ  very  little  from  the  mon- 
asteries. As  regards  the  character  and  practices  of  their  in- 
mates, it  must  be  said  that,  with  few  exceptions,  their  repu- 
tation is  far  from  being  above  suspicion. 


PREPONDERANCE  OF  FEMALE  WORSHIPERS. 


103 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

BUDDHISM — CONTINUED. 

Worshipers  in  Buddhist  Temples  principally  Women,  and  why. — Objects 
sought  in  Worship. — Mode  of  seeking  a Response. — Making  of  Vows. — 
Procuring  Drafts  on  Hades. — Forms  of  Worship. — Candles. — Incense. — 
Rosaries. — Social  Intercourse  and  Gossip  in  the  Temples. — Practice  of 
worshiping  Books.- — Passport  fpr  Hades. — Self-righteous  Character  of 
those  who  frequent  Temples. — Striking  Parallelism  between  Buddhism 
and  Romanism. 

('  T iie  worshipers  in  Buddhist  temples  are  for  the  most  part 
women,  and  these  are  generally  advanced  in  age.  The  young 
women  are  confined  to  their  houses  by  the  multiplicity  of  their 
domestic  duties  and  the  customs  of  the  country,  which  forbid 
their  appearing  in  public.  The  older  women  having  compar- 
atively little  to  do,  and  reminded  by  their  age  of  the  necessity 
of  preparing  for  a future  state,  spend  much  of  their  time  in 
the  temples,  and  thus  give  a kind  of  variety  to  their  otherwise 
unoccupied  and  monotonous  hours. 

In  addition  to  the  acknowledged  superior  religious  suscep- 
tibility of  women  in  every  age  and  country,  the  very  large 
number  of  female  worshipers  is  thus  accounted  for.  In  ac- 
cordance with  the  doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls,  so 
prominent  in  the  Buddhist  system,  the  great  end  in  the  worshi]  > 
of  Buddha  is  to  secure  a favorable  position  in  the  future  state, 
in  which  it  is  supposed  that  individuals  will  ascend  or  descend 
in  the  scale  of  existence  according  to  the  preponderance  of 
their  merits  or  demerits  in  this  life.  In  consequence  of  the 
inferior  station  of  women  in  China  and  their  peculiar  trials, 
being  a woman  is  regarded  as  a great  misfortune ; and  in  the 
“ bitterness  ” incident  to  their  present  lives  they  console  them- 
selves with  the  hope  that  their  earnest  devotions  at  the  shrine 


104 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


Advice  in  times  of  exigency  is  obtained  in  the  following 
manner : The  worshiper  takes  in  his  hand  a cylindrical  box, 
opened  at  the  top,  and  containing  a number  of  small  labelled 
wooden  sticks,  and  shakes  the  box  in  front  of  the  idol  until 


of  Buddha  will  gain  for  them  the  position  of  “ a man  in  good 
circumstances  ” in  the  future  state.  They  suppose  that  the 
neglect  of  worshiping  Buddha  would  result  in  being  born 
again  in  one  of  the  lower  orders  of  animals.  Men  are  some- 
times seen  making  their  prostrations  before  Buddhist  idols, 
but  generally  with  the  design  of  gaining  some  present  favor 
without  reference  to  a future  life. 

In  performing  idol-worship  the  people  do  not  choose  lucky 
days,  as  they  do  so  commonly  in  attending  to  other  matters. 
Unusually  large  numbers  of  people  may  be  seen  at  the  Bud- 
dhist and  other  temples  on  the  first  and  fifteenth  of  each  month, 
and  also  on  the  birthdays  of  different  gods.  Special  visits 
are  made  for  special  purposes  at  all  times.  Some  go  to  pray 
for  children ; some  to  ask  an  omen  or  advice  in  cases  of  exi- 
gency or  perplexity;  some  to  ask  medicine  for  sick  persons, 
and  some  to  make  vows. 


IDOLATROUS  VOWS  AND  WORSHIP. 


105 


one  of  them  falls  out.  The  number  written  on  this  stick  points 
out  the  corresponding  slip  of  paper,  or  j^ragraph  of  a book, 
where  the  desired  omen  or  response  may  be  found.  This  is 
written  in  a very  indefinite  style,  indicating  whether  the  mat- 
ter in  question  will  terminate  favorably  or  unfavorably,  wheth- 
er a plan  proposed  should  be  followed  or  not.  The  same  de- 
vice is  used  in  asking  for  medicine,  though  the  god  interro- 
gated is  different,  and  the  slips  of  paper  contain  medical  pre- 
scriptions ojiIv.  As  a general  rule,  the  Chinese  call  a phy- 
sician, but  the  above  expedient  is  resorted  to  both  in  trivial 
and  alarming  cases,  when  the  aid  of  a physician  is  either  unnec- 
essary or  unavailing,  or  when  the  disease  is  of  a hidden  or 
mysterious  character.  Seeking  omens  and  medicines,  though 
practiced  in  Buddhist  temples,  is  more  common  in  some  others^ 
Y Vows  are  made  in  cases  of  distress  and  uncertainty.  The 
person  assuming  a vow,  in  order  to  secure  the  assistance  and 
protection  of  some  deity,  promises  to  provide  a theatrical  ex- 
hibition for  the  god  to  look  at,  or  to  feed  hungry  ghosts,  or 
to  furnish  new  clothes  for  some  idol  in  the  temple,  as  some 
of  them,  which  are  not  painted  or  covered  with  gold-leaf, 
wear  a variety  of  clothes,  which  are  changed  with  the  chang- 
ing seasons.  Vows  of  other  kinds  are  made  which  need  not 
be  mentioned. 

Persons  visiting  the  temples  under  circumstances  of  pecul- 
iar urgency,  as  above  described,  often  worship  along  the  way 
• for  the  distance  of  half  a mile  or  more,  stopping  every  few 
steps  to  make  their  prostrations.^/' 

C Worship  on  ordinary  occasions  consists  in  simply  burning 
candles  and  incense,  making  prostrations  before  the  gods,  and 
giving  a few  cash  to  the  priests. 

The  following  is  a description  of  some  peculiarities  of  the 
worship  in  Ningpo  and  its  vicinity:  Tlfb  temples  are  gener- 
ally visited  on  particular  days  appointed  by  the  priests,  and 
the  great  object  of  these  visits  is  to  obtain  bills  for  the  pay- 
ment of  money  in  Hades,  which  are  called  tieh.  When  the 
women  apply  to  the  priests  for  instruction  and  assistance 

E 2 


106 


CHINA  'AND  THE  CHINESE. 


they  are  answered  much  as  follows : — “ When  you  die  your 
soul  will  pass  into  the  land  of  spirits,  where  it  may  remain 
ages  or  hundreds  of  years  before  it  is  allowed  to  return  to 
earth  and  inhabit  another  body.  In  your  journeyings  there, 
when  you  cross  bridges  you  will  have  to  pay  toll;  when 
you  cross  a ferry  you  must  fee  the  ferry-man ; if  you  wish 
good  accommodations  and  attentions  in  the  inns  you  must  be 
able  to  pay  well  for  them.  It  will  be  very  desirable  also  for 
you  to  fee  the  inferior  officers  of  Hades,  so  as  ^ bring  your 
case  speedily  before  the  courts  for  adjudication,  and  facilitate 
your  release  and  advancement.  In  a word,  money  answers  all 
things,  in  the  land  of  spirits  as  well  as  in  this  present  world.” 
The  women  are  further  informed  that  the  priests  have  opened 
communication  with  the  land  of  spirits,  and  that  their  drafts 
are  honored  there.  In  one  corner  of  the  temple  a priest  sells 
these  drafts,  called  tieh.  When  the  paper  has  been  bought 
it  receives  the  great  seal  or  stamp  of  the  temple ; and  after  the 
name  Na  mi  o mi  ta  full  has  been  chanted  over  it  from  three 
thousand  to  ten  thousand  times,  it  is  regarded  as  veritable 
money,  and  is  laid  aside  for  future  use  in  a safe  provided  for 
the  purpose.  It  is  supposed  that  each  one  -will  entitle  the 
possessor  to  a number  of  cash  equal  to  the  number  of  times 
the  name  Na  mi  o mi  ta  full  has  been  repeated  over  it.  The 
priests  have  contrived  to  realize  an  abundant  harvest  from  the 
sale  of  this  paper-money.  Only  one  tieh  can  be  issued  in 
one  day,  and  the  days  for  obtaining  them  are  made  as  numer-' 
ous  as  the  credulity  of  the  ignorant  women  will  admit  of. 
They  are  distributed  and  arranged  as  follows : The  Skill  wane) 
hioei,  or  gathering  for  the  worship  of  the  “Ten  Kings” 
of  the  departments  of  hell,  requires  ten  days ; one  for  the 
birthday  of  each  one  of  these  kings — the  first  day  occurring 
in  the  first  month,  and  the  last  closing  with  the  thirtieth  day 
of  the  seventh  month.) 

The  Hiueh  hu  hwei,  or  “ Blood  Lake  Gathering,”  also  re- 
quires ten  days ; one  for  each  month,  closing  with  the  tenth 
month.  It  is  supposed  that  women,  on  aocount  of  the  pol- 


PROCURING  BILLS  ON  HADES. 


107 


lution  of  child-bearing,  will  all  be  immersed  after  death  in 
this  blood  lake  if  this  punishment  is  not  prevented  by  pro- 
curing these  tieh. 

The  Ta  tsih  hwei  continues  during  the  first  seven  days  of 
the  second  month.  At  this  gathering  the  women  bring  pres- 
ents to  the  priests. 

Pah  fuh  hwei,  or  the  gathering  of  the  eighth  month,  is  ob- 
served during  the  first  ten  days  of  that  month. 

.Tun  fuh  hwei  occupies  the  first  ten  days  of  the  intercalary 
month  in  the  years  in  which  it  occurs. 

Whenever  a temple  is  erected,  a bridge  completed,  a tem- 
ple repaired,  or  a bell  cast,  additional  days  are  appointed  for 
procuring  tieh,  represented  as  more  valuable  than  those  men- 
tioned above.  These  are  respectively  called  “ Complete  Tem- 
ple Tieh,”  “ Complete  Bridge  Tieh,”  “ Open  Light  Tieh,”  etc. ; 
and  the  days  for  procuring  them  are  made  known  by  placards 
posted  at  every  corner.  y 

The  “ Open  Light  Tieh  ” is  so  called  becausc(while  a temple 
is  being  repaired,  a paper  is  pasted  over  the  eyes  of  the  idols. 
This  is  a polite  invitation  for  the  gods  to  withdraw,  in  order 
to  avoid  being  offended  by  the  noise  and  dirt  of  the  work- 
men, and  they  are  regarded  as  being  absent  until  the  work  is 
completed  and  the  eye-covering  removed,  or  “ light  opened.”} 
^ As  there  are  fifty  or  sixty  days  in  the  year  on  which  these 
tieh  can  be  obtained,  the  women  generally  get  about  this  num- 
ber yeaidy ; but  with  this  the  priests  are  not  satisfied,  as  many 
women,  from  sickness  or  other  causes,  are  not  able  to  come  to 
the  temple  on  the  regular  days.  Accordingly,  for  the  considera- 
tion of  a few  hundred  cash,  the  priests  allow  them  to  enter  or 
be  connected  with  a hwei,  and  their  names  being  enrolled, 
though  some  individuals  may  not  be  present  on  the  appointed 
days,  a tieh  is  laid  aside  for  each  one,  and  they  are  allowed  to 
come  or  send  for  it  any  time  and  to  chant  over  it  at  home. 

But  the  priests  are  not  content  even  with  this.  In  order  to 
increase  their  gains  they  declare  that  of  the  Wang  hwei  tieh, 
mentioned  above,  no  smaller  number  will  suffice  than  one  hun- 


108 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


dred  and  sixty,  to  obtain  which  would  require  sixteen  years. 
She  who  dies  with  this  number  incomplete  is  doomed  to  be 
chained  for  a long  period  of  time  in  one  of  the  apartments  of 
hell.  As  the  poor  women  have  many  fears  that  they  will  not 
live  to  complete  the  full  number  of  this  tieh,  the  priests  gladly 
relieve  them  of  their  difficulty,  offering  to  perform  a ceremony 
which  will  do  away  with  the  evil  consequences  of  this  de- 
ficiency for  a certain  remuneration.  With  this  description 
of  the  tieh,  let  us  now  direct  our  attention  to  the  temples.  ^ 

( On  worship  days  a great  number  of  women  may  be  seen 
slowly  making  their  way  to  their  chosen  place  for  worship. 
They  generally  go  in  small  companies,  having  with  them  a 
little  basket  containing  candles  and  incense-sticks.  They  are 
always  dressed  in  their  best  clothes,  or  clothes  hired  for  the 
purpose,  as  it  would  be  considered  disrespectful  to  the  gods 
to  appear  before  them  in  their  every-day  apparel ; and  they 
hope  also,  by  their  dress  and  behavior,  to  produce  the  impres- 
sion upon  the  gods  that  they  are  persons  of  better  circum- 
stances than  they  really  are. 

Arrived  at  the  temple,  the  worship  is  conducted  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner  : A few  candles  are  lighted  and  placed  before 
the  gods,  either  by  the  worshiper  or  a servant  or  priest  in  at- 
tendance at  the  temple.  Incense-sticks  are  also  lighted  and  in- 
serted in  the  large  bowl  of  ashes  before  each  idol,  or  at  least 
those  to  which  the  individual  expects  to  pay  homage.  The 
design  of  the  worshiper  in  doing  this  is  to  apprise  the  gods 
of  her  presence  and  intentions.  These  incense-sticks  are  about 
a foot  long,  and  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  are 
made  of  fragrant  wood,  and  one  end  is  rolled  in  a composition 
of  sawdust,  so  that  when  ignited  it  will  burn  a considerable 
time,  emitting  a good  deal  of  smoke. 

When  the  incense-sticks  have  been  properly  disposed,  the 
worshiper  returns  to  the  place  of  starting,  and  makes  her  pros- 
trations before  each  of  the  idols  in  succession.  This  is  done 
by  first  bending  the  body  and  simultaneously  making  a verti- 
cal motion  with  the  hands,  the  palms  of  which  are  placed  to- 


SOCIAL  INTERCOURSE  IN  TEMPLES. 


109 


"ether,  and  then  kneeling  down  on  a soft  mat  or  cushion  and 
striking  her  head  against  it.  These  acts  are  performed  a 
number  of  times  successively  in  each  place. 

The  ceremony  just  mentioned  is  regarded  as  preparatory  to 
the  more  important  one  which  follows,  and  forms  the  chief  ob- 
ject of  the  visit,  namely,  that  of  obtaining  the  tieh.  This,  which 
is  bought  at  what  resembles  very  much  a ticket-office,  may 
now  be  mofe  minutely  described.  Each  one  consists  of  a 
printed  paper,  enclosed  in  an  envelope,  with  blanks  to  be  filled 
out  after  it  is  purchased.  On  one  side  of  the  envelope 
is  written  the  name  of  the  temple  and  the  class  or  kind  of  the 
tieh,  on  the  other  side  the  religious  name  of  the  purchaser. 
Within  is  an  engraving  of  Buddha  and  the  name  of  the  pur- 
chaser, with  the  year,  month,  day  and  hour  of  her  birth,  and  the 
local  temple  with  which  she  is  connected,  after  which  follows 
a few  words  promising  happiness  in  a future  state.  The  poor 
women,  having  purchased  this  paper,  select  a convenient  place 
in  the  temple  for  spending  the  greater  part  of  the  day  in  the 
vain  repetition  of  N~ct  mi  o mi  tafuh,  having  a rosary  to  assist 
in  counting.  Rosaries  are  made  of  different  materials,  and 
have  generally  one  hundred  and  eight  beads.  Persons  of 
wealth  have  them  ornamented  with  pendants  of  gold  and  sil- 
ver, such  as  representations  of  Buddha;  a small  tablet  con- 
taining the  religious  name  of  the  possessor ; miniature  repre- 
sentations of  drums  and  other  instruments  used  in  temple 
worship,  to  indicate  the  religious  character  of  those  who  use 
them ; and  a little  lantern  to  represent  the  light  which  they 
hope  will  shine  upon  their  paths  in  the  land  of  spirits.  These 
papers  gradually  accumulate,  and  after  the  death  of  the  wor- 
shiper are,  with  other  paper-money  of  different  kinds,  sup- 
posed to  be  transferred  to  the  regions  of  the  dead  by  being 
burned. ^ 

It  might  be  inferred  from  the  above  description  that  these 
visits  to  the  temple  are  dull  and  monotonous,  but  the  very  op- 
posite is  the  case.  The  scene  is  full  of  lively  interest,  and  af- 
fords abundant  matter  for  the  gossip  of  many  days  to  come. 


110 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


The  rich  are  present  to  see  and  to  be  seen,  dressed  in  costly  at- 
tire, obj  ects  at  once  of  admiration  and  envy.  A few  young 
girls,  gayly  dressed,  have  perhaps  come  out  for  the  first  time 
to  see  the  busy  world  and  get  their  first  impressions  of  tem- 
ples and  temple  worship.  Old  acquaintances  meet  and  mutu- 
ally entertain  each  other  with  news  of  neighbors,  family  diffi- 
culties, the  virtues  of  their  own  children  and  faults  of  their 
daughters-in-law,  and  superstitious  tales.  With  the  chatter- 
ing of  voluble  tongues  is  mixed  the  continually-interrupted 
chant  of  JVa  mi  o mi  ta  full , which,  when  they  are  in  their  turn 
listening  to  the  stories  of  others,  their  tongues  seem  to  repeat 
almost  spontaneously. 

While  all  women  engage  more  or  less  in  temple  worship, 
as  above  described,  there  is  a class  regarded  as  particularly 
religious,  who  are  most  assiduous  and  persevering  in  the  prac- 
tice of  additional  idolatrous  worship  of  an  entirely  different 
kind.  This  class  of  women  is  by  no  means  small,  and  is  made 
up  of  some  who  have  a real  desire  to  prepare  for  a future 
state,  of  others  who  love  the  variety  and  excitement  which 
this  kind  of  life  affords,  and  those  who  stupidly  follow  the  ex- 
ample of  others  without  knowing  the  reason  why.  These  seek 
advantages  in  the  future  world  by  a ceremony  called  Pai  king , 
or  “ worshiping  books.” 

For  this  purpose  they  generally  choose  nunneries  in  prefer- 
ence to  monasteries,  on  account  of  the  advantages  they  afford 
of  meeting  only  with  their  own  sex.  This  exercise  consists  in 
worshiping  every  character  of  certain  books  successively,  mak- 
ing prostrations  as  before  to  the  idols.  Proceeding  in  this  man- 
ner, a person  is  able  to  worship  a little  more  than  a page  of  a 
book  in  a day.  The  first  book  used  is  the  Shwal  chan,  the  wor- 
ship of  which  is  supposed  to  take  away  moral  uncleanness. 
The  ideas  they  have  respecting  this  ceremony  are  not  unlike 
those  of  the  J ews  respecting  ceremonial  purification.  The  next 
book  in  order  is  the  Shau  sang  king,  the  worship  of  which  is 
made  necessary  by  the  following  superstition. 

It  is  taught  that  every  individual,  during  the  former  exist- 


THE  CUSTOM  OF  WORSHIPING  BOOKS. 


Ill 


ence,  incurred  more  or  less  expense  .j  ust  before  entering  upon 
the  present  life,  on  account  of  which  a debt  remains  in  Hades 
unpaid,  satisfaction  for  which  will  be  exacted  from  the  debt- 
or in  a future  state  if  it  is  not-  cancelled  in  this.  The  debt  is 
supposed  to  be  paid  by  the  worship  of  this  book.  Persons  go 
over  it  from  ten  to  ninety-six  times,  according  to  the  amount 
of  the  debt,  which  is  determined  by  the  horoscope  of  each  in- 
dividual. The  book  must  also  be  worshiped  over  several  times 
in  addition,  to  pay  off  the  interest  which  has  accumulated. 

After  these  books  are  finished,  others  less  important  and  in- 
dispensable may  be  added.  Some  perform  a greater  amount 
of  this  worship  than  is  regarded  really  necessary,  in  order,  by 
these  works  of  supererogation,  to  make  their  future  well-being 
more  secure.  Those  who  have  purified  themselves  by  the 
worship  of  the  Shwa't  chan  are  very  careful  to  keep  from  be- 
ing again  polluted,  and  scrupulously  avoid  coming  in  contact 
with  objects  regarded  as  unclean.  They  are  particularly  care- 
ful not  to  enter  a room  occupied  by  Avomen  in  child-bed.  If 
they  are  obliged  by  the  duties  they  owe  to  their  own  relations 
to  enter  such  rooms,  or  if  they  do  it  by  accident,  they  worship 
the  Shwal  chan  over  again. 

This  class  of  women  live  on  a vegetable  diet,  to  avoid  the 
sin  of  taking  away  animal  life. 

When  the  worship  of  any  particular  book  is  completed,  a 
ceremony  is  performed  in  the  nunnery,  or  monastery,  called 
Wan  king,  or  “ complete  book.”  This  ceremony  marks  a peri- 
od of  rejoicing  on  the  part  of  the  worshiper,  and  of  unusual 
earnings  on  the  part  of  the  money-loving  priests. 

Another  ceremony,  which  may  be  mentioned  in  connection 
with  the  book-worship,  is  that  of  procuring  a Lu-yin , or  pass- 
port. This  is  a large  sheet  of  paper,  having  in  the  middle  an  en- 
graving of  Kwan-yin  Poo-sah , with  several  lines  of  characters 
and  other  embellishments.  Individuals,  having  bought  this 
sheet,  go  to  the  monastery  and  worship  the  engraving,  contin- 
ually chanting  Na  mi  o mi  ta  fuh.  The  repetition  of  this 
name  a certain  number  of  times  (generally  one  thousand)  is 


112 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


marked  by  an  impression  on  the  paper  with  a round  stamp. 
When  the  borders  of  this  sheet  are  filled  with  these  impres- 
sions the  ceremony  is  finished,  and  the  paper  is  laid  aside  until 
the  death  of  the  possessor,  when  it  is  burned,  and  it  is  thus 
supposed  to  pass  to  the  departed  spirit,  and  secure  her  unin- 
terrupted entrance  to  any  department  of  the  regions  of  the 
dead. 

The  different  kinds  of  worship  in  Buddhist  temples,  above 
described,  may  be  performed  by  proxy,  and  many  persons  gain 
a livelihood  by  engaging  their  services  in  this  way  to  the  sick. 

Of  all  classes  of  individuals  to  be  met  with  in  China  none 
seem  more  hopeless  and  inaccessible  to  the  truth  than  these 
self-righteous,  inveterate  paper-worshipers.  It  must  be  said 
of  them,  however,  that  they  generally  lead  comparatively  hon- 
est and  blameless  lives,  and  are  much  respected  by  their  own 
people.  The  character  of  their  employment  is  such  as  to  keep 
them  constantly  on  their  guard,  as  others  look  to  them  as  ex- 
amples, and  they  thus  become  habitually  careful  to  avoid  open 
sins  and  improprieties. 

r 1 Without  dwelling  longer  on  the  details  of  Buddhist  wbr- 
ship,  it  may  be  well  to  refer  to  a general  resemblance  between 
Buddhism  and  Romanism,  so  marked  that  it  is  recognized  and 
acknowledged  by  the  Romanists  themselves,  wrho  account  for 
this  fact  by  the  supposition  that  Satan  has  counterfeited  the 
true  religion  so  as  to  preoccupy  and  satisfy  the  minds  of  the 
people  with  the  counterfeit,  to  the  exclusion  of  what  is  true 
and  genuine.  This  correspondence  holds  in  minute  particulars. 
Both  have  a supreme  and  infallible  head ; the  celibacy  of  the 
priesthood;  monasteries  and  nunneries;  prayers  in  an  un- 
known tongue ; prayers  to  saints  and  intercessors,  and  especial- 
ly and  principally  to  a virgin  with  a child ; also  prayers  for  the 
dead ; repetition  of  prayers  with  the  use  of  a rosary ; works 
of  merit  and  supererogation ; self-imposed  austerities  and  bod- 
ily inflictions ; a formal  daily  service,  consisting  of  chants,  burn- 
ing of  candles,  sprinkling  of  holy-water,  bowings,  prostrations, 
marchings  and  counter-marchings.  Both  have  also  fast  days 


RESEMBLANCE  OF  BUDDHISM  TO  ROMANISM.  113 

and  feast  days;  religious  processions ; images  and  pictures, 
and  fabulous  legends ; and  revere  and  worship  relics,  real  and 
pretended.  These  two  systems,  wonderfully  adapted  to  differ- 
ent circumstances  of  race,  civilization,  and  religious  intelli- 
gence, hold  in  spiritual  bondage  nearly  four-fifths  of  the  hu- 
man race,  gratifying,  at  the  same  time,  the  religious  longings 
and  the  sinful  perversions  of  our  nature,  providing  objects  of 
worship,  but  in  fact  leading  the  soul  away  from  God. 


114 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

TAUISM. 

Lao-ts,  the  Founder  of  the  Tauist  Sect. — Origin  of  the  word  Tauism.. — 
Lao-ts  and  Confucius  contemporaneous. — Change  and  Deterioration  in 
Tauism. — Its  character  Materialistic. — Its  theory  of  the  Universe. — The 
Five  Elements. — Personification  of  Stars,  and  their  Identity  with  some 
of  the  Gods. — Alchemy. — Elixir  of  Life. — Astrology. — Popular  Belief 
respecting  Lao-ts,  and  the  origin  of  Tauism. — Legend  of  Lu-tsu. — Gods 
of  Thunder  and  Lightning. — The  Goddess  Tau-mu. — The  “Three 
Eulers.” — The  Dragon  King. — His  Likeness,  how  obtained. — Inferior 
Dragons  and  the  “ Dragon  Examinations.” — Worship  of  the  Dragon. — 
Description  of  the  Tu-ti  Poo-sah,-  or  “God  of  the  Earth. — Connection 
between  Tauism  and  State  Worship.. — Tauist  Temples,  Idols,  and 
Priests. — Object  or  Aim  of  the  Tauist  Devotee. — Means  and  bodily  Ex- 
ercises made  use  of. — Animals  may  attain  to  the  Condition  of  the  Genii. 
— Worship  of  Women  in  Tauist  Temples. — Sending  Dispatches  to  the 
Spirit  World. — Charms,  and  Spells,  and  Magic. — Moral  Essays  con- 
nected with  Tauism. — The  reason  why  Tauism  is  less  popular  than 
Buddhism. 

The  Tauist  sect  originated  with  Lao-ts,  a Chinese  philoso- 
pher, who  was  bom  b.c.  604.  He  is  generally  called  Tai 
Shang  Lao  Kiun — “The  Great  Supreme  Venerable  Ruler.” 
His  remarkable  work,  Tan  teh  king — “ Treatise  on  Truth  and 
Virtue,”  occupies  a prominent  place  in  Chinese  literature. 
The  name  Tauism  is  derived  from  the  first  character  in  the 
title  of  this  book,  Tau,  which  means  truth  or  doctrine,  and 
is  the  subject  principally  discoursed  on  in  it.  The  writings  of 
Chwang-ts,  a disciple  of  Lao-ts,  are  more  sententious  and  at- 
tractive than  those  of  his  master,  and  more  read  by  scholars. 
These  works,  however,  have  never  been  popular,  being  too 
abstruse  and  transcendental  for  ordinary  readers.  Lao-ts 
was  contemporaneous  with  Confucius,  who,  as  we  learn  from 


PECULIARITIES  OF  TAUISM. 


115 


the  Confucian  Analects,  visited  him  and  conversed  with  him 
respecting  his  system.  He  seems,  however,  not  to  have  com- 
prehended him,  and  to  have  been  but  little  impressed  and 
influenced  by  him.  On  the  other  hand,  the  early  Tauist  writ- 
ers looked  with  contempt  on  the  simple,  unphilosophical,  and 
practical  doctrines  of  Confucius.  But  Confucianism  has  been 
adopted  by  the  Chinese  in  its  original  form,  while  Tauism 
has  been  obliged  to  change  its  form  in  order  to  secure  its 
perpetuation.  It  has  passed  from  philosophy  to  superstition, 
and  from  inquiries  after  truth  to  pandering  to  the  desire  of 
our  nature  for  the  marvellous.  It  has  busied  itself  with  seek- 
ing after  the  elixir  of  life  and  the  philosopher’s  stone,  and  at 
last  degenerated  into  a gross  form  of  idolatry.  It  gives  evi- 
dence of  being  acted  upon  and  influenced  in  a great  degree 
by  Buddhism. 

The  special  characteristic  of  this  system  is  materialism, 
and  in  its  development  it  includes  a theory  of  the  universe 
and  a professed  science  of  alchemy  and  astrology.  Matter  is 
regarded  as  eternal.  The  grosser  forms  of  different  sub- 
stances tend  downward,  and  constitute  the  solid  material  of 
the  earth ; the  more  refined  esseiices  tend  upward,  and  wander 
through  space,  possessed  of  individuality  and  life,  and  con- 
stituting, when  they  assume  visible  forms,  the  stars  which 
look  down  from  their  spheres  upon  the  lower  world.  While 
the  earth  is  composed  of  the  grosser  and  the  heavens  of  the 
refined  forms  of  matter,  so  also  the  body  and  the  soul  of  man 
are  similarly  constituted. 

The  five  special  substances  or  elements  of  which  the  uni- 
verse is  composed  are  metal,  -wood,  water,  fire,  and  earth.  The 
sublimated  essences  of  these  elements  form  five  of  the  planets, 
respectively  called  metal  star,  wood  star,  etc.  These  stars  sustain 
mysterious  and  important  relations  to  the  world  and  its  inhab- 
itants, and  exercise  a powerful  influence  on  the  harmony  of  the 
universe  and  the  destinies  of  men.  They  may,  and  often  do,  de- 
scend to  earth  and  become  gods  in  order  to  enter  into  nearer 
relations  with  men,  and  undertake  some  special  work  of  benev- 


110 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


olence  for  them.  In  this  way  many  of  the  gods  of  Tauism  are 
identified  with  certain  stars,  or  are  stars  personified. 

In  connection  with  this  system,  alchemy  attempts  the  in- 
vestigation of  the  essences  of  matter,  and  especially  the  dis- 
covery of  some  method  of  modifying  and  changing  the  out- 
ward forms  of  matter.  Ages  have  been  spent  in  endeavoring 
to  obtain  an  elixir  of  life,  by  which  to  secure  perpetual  youth 
and  vigor,  and  also  some  secret  or  art  by  which  other  sub- 
stances may  be  turned  into  gold.  Astrology  endeavors  to  find 
out  the  peculiar  characters  of  different  stars,  and  determine 
their  relations  to  the  birth  of  individuals,  and  the  events  and 
changes  in  the  histories  of  individuals  and  nations. 

The  popular  belief  respecting  the  origin  of  Tauism  is  em- 
bodied in  the  account  given  of  it  in  the  Sau  shin  hi.  Lao-ts 
is  represented  as  having  existed  as  a living  principle,  pervading 
empty  space,  anterior  to  the  creation,  when  the  heavens  were 
as  yet  without  light  and  the  earth  without  form.  After  the  evo- 
lutions and  transformations  of  thousands  of  years,  this  princi- 
ple was  personified  in  a deity  called  Miau  wu  siting  hiun,  the 
“ Holy  Ruler  of  W onderful N onentity.”  This  deity,  after  innu- 
merable ages  and  catastrophes,  again  appeared  as  the  Miau  yu 
siting  hiun,  or  “Holy  Ruler  of  Wonderful  Entity.”  The  next 
form  which  this  deity,  or  principle,  is  said  to  have  assumed, 
was  that  of  Hwan  tun  shing  hiun,  the  “ Holy  Ruler  of  Chaotic 
Confusion.”  We  have  here  presented  in  this  pantheistic 
form,  a singular  analogy  to  the  scriptural  view  of  the  creation 
of  existing  matter  out  of  nothing ; and  also  the  idea  of  a divine 
Trinity,  which  in  more  or  less  obscure  intimations  is  found  in 
Brahmanism  and  Buddhism  as  well  as  Tauism. 

After  the  creation  of  men,  Lao-ts  is  supposed  to  have  ap- 
peared. on  the  earth  at  different  times  in  the  form  of  kings  of 
different  dynasties,  and  as  teacher  or  adviser  of  kings,  though 
the  world  was  not  aware  of  his  presence.  When  he  appeared 
as  the  philosopher  Lao-ts  he  is  represented  as  having  descended 
from  heaven  on  a sunbeam,  in  the  form  of  a round  ball  of  va- 
riegated colors,  which  fell  into  the  mouth  of  a sleeping  virgin. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  OBJECTS  OF  WORSHIP. 


117 


Conception  having  thus  taken  place,  Lao-ts  was  born  in  a mi- 
raculous manner,  after  a period  of  eighty-one  years’  gestation. 
At  his  birth  his  hair  was  already  white  from  age,  and  he  was 
accordingly  called,  as  his  name  Lao-ts  implies,  “ The  Old  Boy 
The  arrogant  prerogatives  claimed  for  this  personage  by  his 
devotees  may  be  learned  from  the  following  rhapsody,  address- 
ed to  him  by  one  of  the  kings  of  the  Sung  dynasty,  nearly 
one  thousand  years  ago : 

“ Great  and  most  excellent  Tau, 

Not  created,  self-existent ; 

From  eternity  to  eternities, 

Antecedent  to  the  earth  and  heaven. 

Like  all-pervading  light, 

Continuing  through  eternity : 

Who  gave  instruction  to  Confucius  in  the  East, 

And  called  into  existence  Buddha  in  the  West. 

Director  of  all  kings  ; 

Parent  of  all  sages  ; 

Originator  of  all  religions  ; 

Mystery  of  mysteries.” 

This  god  is  not  a favorite  object  of  worship,  and  generally 
occupies  some  small  and  unimportant,  though  elevated , situation 
in  Tauist  temples.  Idolatrous  worship  is  principally  paid  to  the 
inferior  deities,  who  are  not  so  much  elevated  in  character  and 
dignity  as  not  to  concern  themselves  in  the  affairs  of  men. 
Yuh  hwang  shang  ti,  the  chief  of  all  the  gods,  generally  occu- 
pies the  most  prominent  position,  though  his  place  in  the 
great  hall  is  not  unfreqnently  filled  by  Chin-wu-ta-ti  or  some 
other  idol,  no  regular  order  being  observed. 

Among  the  most  important  idols  of  Tauism  is  La-tsu,  cor- 
responding somewhat  in  character  to  Kivan-yin , the  Buddhist 
Goddess  of  Mercy ; and  like  her,  though  an  inferior  deity,  he 
is  a great  favorite  with  the  people,  because  he  is  supposed 
most  to  pity  them  in  their  distresses,  and  often  to  have  come 
from  heaven  for  their  relief.  This  is  the  great  medicine-god 
of  China,  from  whom  the  people  beg  prescriptions.  He  not 
only  occupies  a prominent  place  in  Tauist  temples,  but  has 


118 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


temples  erected  to  him  exclusively,  and  occupies  also  a place 
in  the  Pantheon  of  Buddhism.  The  history  of  this  idol  may 
be  given  as  a sample  of  the  whole. 

lu-tsu  was  formerly  a scholar  of  the  second  degree,  who 
lived  in  the  Sung  dynasty  not  far  from  a thousand  years  ago. 
On  his  way  to  the  imperial  capital  to  attend  the  literary  ex- 
aminations, with  a mind  eagerly  aspiring  after  success  and 
promotion,  he  was  met  at  an  inn  near  the  end  of  his  journey 
by  one  of  the  genii,  called  Chung-li-kiuen , who  appeared  in  the 
form  of  a servant  at  the  inn.  The  wearied  scholar,  receiving 
from  the  disguised  genius  a pillow  to  rest  upon  while  his 
food  was  being  prepared,  soon  fell  asleep,  and  in  his  dreams 
imagined  himself  successful  in  the  examination,  and  advanced 
from  one  office  of  dignity  and  power  to  another  till  he  had 
arrived  at  the  station  of  prime  minister  in  the  imaginary 
kingdom  of  Hwa-su.  Supposing  himself  possessed  of  all 
that  heart  could  wish,  ho  was  dreaming  of  being  surrounded 
by  friends  and  children  of  the  second  generation,  on  the  joy- 
ous anniversary  of  his  birthday,  when  he  awoke  and  saw  the 
supposed  servant  boiling  his  rice  beside  him,  who  addressed 
him  in  these  words : — “ Before  the  yellow  rice  is  cooked,  you 
have  already  visited  in  your  dreams  the  kingdom  of  Ilwa-su .” 
The  astonished  scholar  exclaimed — “ I perceive  that  you  are 
one  of  the  genii.”  Chung-li-kiuen  replied — “ Do  not  be  disap- 
pointed to  find  that  what  you  have  witnessed  is  only  a dream ; 
the  reality  is  nothing  more.  Suppose  yourself  really  possess- 
ed of  all  that  you  have  imagined,  when  it  is  over  what  is  it 
but  a dream?”  The  scholar  acknowledged  the  vanity  of  all 
worldly  pursuits,  and  determined  immediately  to  renounce  the 
world  for  the  cultivation  of  virtue.  Chung-li-kiuen  offered  to 
assist  him  in  gaining  the  condition  and  blessedness  of  the 
genii,  saying — “ That  you  may  the  sooner  obtain  the  three 
thousand  degrees  of  merit  requisite,  I will  teach  you  a secret 
by  which  you  may  convert  every  thing  which  you  point  to 
into  gold,  and  in  performing  good  deeds,  and  relieving  the 
wants  of  the  distressed,  the  merit  will  be  quickly  and  easily 


INFERIOR  GODS  OF  TAUISM. 


119 


obtained.”  The  scholar  inquired — “ Will  the  gold  ever  revert 
to  its  original  properties?”  His  instructor  replied — “Yes, 
after  a period  of  years.”  “ Then,”  answered  Lu-tsu,  “ I de- 
cline the  proffered  boon,  for  I would  not  confer  a temporary 
advantage  to  be  followed  by  disappointment  and  sorrow.” 
The  genius  replied— “'This  act  of  magnanimity  is  already 
equivalent  to  the  three  thousand  degrees  of  merit ; as  a re- 
ward for  it,  you  may  become  one  of  the  genii  at  once.” 

Of  the  other  idols  of  Tauism,  the 
following  may  be  mentioned  as  the 
most  prominent : 

Luc-hung  and  Lue-po  are  known  as 
the  Thunder  God  and  his  wife.  The 
former  is  generally  represented  with 
a beak  and  claws,  and  sometimes  with 
wings,  agreeably  to  the  superstition 
that  electricity  exists  among  the  moun- 
tains in  the  form  of  birds.  He  holds 
in  his  hands  a hammer  and  a drum, 
with  which  he  is  supposed  to  pro- 
duce thunder.  Lue-po  is  represented 
with  mirrors  attached  to  her  hands 
and  feet,  whose  reflections,  when  turn- 
ed in  different  directions,  are  supposed  to  produce  lightning. 

The  goddess  Tau-mu  is  represented  with  eight  hands,  and  is 
identified  with  a constellation  in  the  northern  heavens.  She  is 
supposed  to  have  the  power  of  shortening  and  prolonging  life. 

Prominent  among  the  idols  seen  in  Tauist  temples  are  rep- 
resentations of  the  San  Tsing , or  “ Three  Pure  Ones,”  one 
of  which  is  generally  regarded  as  a personification  of  Lao-ts. 
It  is  supposed  to  be  their  special  office  to  communicate  in- 
struction to  mankind. 

The  San-Kwan , or  “ Three  Rulers,”  generally  called  Tien- 
Kwan , Ti-Kwan,  and  Shicuy-LTwan,  that  is,  “ Rulers  of 
Heaven,  Earth,  and  Sea,”  are  indispensable  gods  of  Tauism. 
They  are  represented  as  three  brothers,  who,  on  account  of 


120 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


their  remarkable  gifts  during  life,  were  after  death  advanced 
to  these  stations  of  dignity  and  importance.  They  are  aiso 
described  by  Tauist  writers  as  a trinity  in  unity. 


TIIE  THREE  PUKE  ONES. 


The  Dragon,  which  is  a universal  and  prominent  object  of 
worship  among  the  Chinese,  may  properly  be  classed  among 
the  gods  of  Tauism.  The  wide  domain  of  the  dragon  em- 
braces all  seas,  lakes,  rivers,  and  ponds,  and  over  these  he 
reigns  supreme.  All  the  living  creatures  of  the  waters  are 
his  subjects,  and  peculiar  phenomena  of  clouds,  celestial  ap- 
pearances, and  water-spouts  are  ascribed  to  his  presence  and 
agency. 

The  exalted  conceptions  which  the  Chinese  have  of  the 
dragon  have  made  this  word  a favorite  one  to  symbolize  and 
represent  the  dignity  and  supremacy  of  the  Chinese  Emperor. 
He  is  spoken  of  as  seated  on  the  Dragon  Throne ; to  see  him 
is  to  see  the  Dragon  Face,  and  his  coat  of  arms  is  a dragon. 

This  monster  is  not  regarded  by  the  Chinese  as  a fabulous 
animal,  but  as  a real  existence  which  many  profess  to  have 
frequently  seen.  Notwithstanding  the  vague  ideas  respecting 
his  form  and  character,  paintings  and  representations  of  the 
dragon  are  often  seen,  presenting  the  same  uniform  appearance. 
The  obtaining  a correct  likeness  is,  in  the  history  of  the  gods, 


COMPETITIVE  EXAMINATIONS  OF  DRAGONS.  121 

accounted  for  as  follows : A king  of  the  Tsin  dynasty,  wishing 
to  build  a bridge  over  the  surface  of  the  sea,  in  order  to  enjoy 
the  recreation  and  fresh  air  which  excursions  on  such  a bridge 
would  afford,  the  dragon,  out  of  respect  for  the  king  and  be- 
cause the  work  was  to  be  performed  within  his  own  dominions, 
offered  to  take  the  superintendence  of  it.  While  engaged  in 
this  work,  the  king  requested  him  to  display  his  original  form 
or  appearance.  This  the  dragon  consented  to  do,  on  condition 
that  the  kina^would  not  cause  his  portrait  to  be  taken.  This 
condition  bemg  complied  .with,  the  dragon  appeared  in  his 
peculiar  shape  and  form,  and  the  king,  contrary  to  his  promise, 
had  his  portrait  taken  by  a skillful  artist.  The  dragon,  resent- 
ing the  insult,  immediately  withdrew  himself,  and  the  king,  to 
atone  for  his  fault,  erected  to  him  a temple. 

Besides  the  Hai  Lung  Ifrcang,  or  “ Sea-dragon  King,”  there 
are  supposed  to  be  inferior  dragons  almost  innumerable.  Ac- 
cording to  the  general  theory  of  correspondence,  not  only  be- 
tween the  celestial  and  terrestrial,  but  between  the  terrestrial 
and  watery  worlds,  it  is  supposed  that  the  relative  stations 
and  degrees  of  dignity  of  the  smaller  dragons  are  determined 
by  a series  of  competitive  examinations  similar  to  those  de- 
scribed in  the  fourth  chapter.  This,  by  the  way,  illustrates  the 
strong  hold  which  the  system  of  competitive  examinations  has 
on  the  minds  of  the  people.  They  hardly  think  any  govern- 
ment complete,  or  even  possible,  without  it.  The  great  exami- 
nation of  the  dragons,  which  coincides  in  time  with  the  corre- 
sponding literary  examination  of  the  people,  occurs  once  in 
three  years,  and  is  held  at  the  crystal  palace  of  the  Dragon 
King,  supposed  to  be  situated  in  some  remote  region  of  the  sea. 
The  competitors  at  this  examination  consists  of  fish,  crabs,  tur- 
tles, lobsters,  snakes,  and  all  kinds  of  water-reptiles,  which 
have  attained  to  the  lower  degrees  of  dragons  by  successful 
examinations  in  the  several  localities  with  which  they  have 
been  connected.  When  the  time  arrives  for  this  examination, 
according  to  a general  command  of  the  Great  Dragon,  the 
water  in  the  small  streams  and  canals  is  elevated,  in  order  to 

F 


122 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


facilitate  the  egress  of  the  aspirants  to  dragonship  to  the  sea. 
An  alleged  fact  that  the  water  of  streams  and  canals  some- 
times rises  very  perceptibly  in  seasons  of  drought,  is  often  re- 
ferred to  as  an  evidence  of  the  existence  of  this  examination. 
It  is  also  believed  that  there  is  a certain  animal,  living  in  sub- 
terranean caverns  of  the  hills,  which  is  assisted  in  its  journey 
to  the  sea  by  a spontaneous  liood  of  water  ]>assing  from  the 
place  of  its  concealment  to  the  nearest  stream,  and  often  car- 
rying away  and  destroying  houses  and  crops  i^its  progress. 
It  is  very  common  to  hear  of  suA  floods  having  occurred  in 
different  places,  and  it  would  be  almost  useless  to  attempt  to 
convince  any  class  of  the  people  that  they  are  not  attributable 
to  this  cause.  This  superstition  is  not  local,  but  general ; and 
it  is  sufficiently  evident  that  it  is  not  confined  to  the  ignorant 
and  vulgar  from  the  fact  that  proclamations  are  sometimes 
issued  by  the  officers  in  different  places,  calling  upon  the 
people  to  hunt  and  destroy  these  animals  in  order  to  avoid  the 
injury  to  life  and  property  which  they  occasion. 

The  competitors  having  reached  the  palace  of  the  Dragon 
King,  the  examinations  consist  in  attempts  to  leap  over  a 
high  wall,  or  dragon-gate,  as  it  is  called.  Success  in  this  at- 
tempt secures  promotion  to  the  higher  degree  of  dragons, 
while  failures  in  scaling  the  wall  generally  result  in  concus- 
sion against  it  and  consequent  death.  Crabs,  turtles,  etc.,  not 
being  remarkable  for  their  powers  of  leaping,  are  supposed  to 
secure  the  services  of  an  active  kind  of  fish,  and  to  scale  the 
Avail  by  clinging  to  his  tail.  This  superstition  is  made  use 
of,  and  not  inaptly,  to  represent  the  manner  in  which  many 
scholars  attain  degrees  by  depending  upon  the  assistance  of 
others. 

The  inferior  dragons,  like  the  Dragon  King,  are  supposed 
not  to  have  material  forms  (except  as  they  assume  them). 
They  are  believed  to  exist  in  great  numbers  in  the  deeper 
places  of  rivers,  ponds,  and  streams.  Many  such  spots  in  dif- 
ferent localities  are  specified  as  the  dAvelling-places  of  drag- 
ons. In  times  of  drought  the  people  resort  to  these  places  to 


WORSHIP  OF  THE  DRAGON  AND  EARTH  GOD.  123 


pray  for  rain,  and  sometimes  the  civil  officers  go  in  person. 
Any  reptile  which  may  be  found  on  the  borders  of  the  drag- 
on pool,  whether  it  be  a frog,  or  worm,  or  snake,  is  regarded 
as  the  assumed  body  of  the  dragon,  and  is  carried  with  great 
pomp  and  reverence  to  the  office  of  the  civil  magistrate,  who 
is  required  to  worship  it  and  pray  for  rain.  In  times  of 
drought,  persons  have  been  known  to  sacrifice  their  lives,  by 
drowning  themselves  in  a dragon  pool,  in  order  by  their 
earnestness  to  compel  the  dragon  to  send  rain,  and  with  a 
view  to  being  deified  on  account  of  their  merit.  Temples  are 
erected  for  the  worship  of  the  dragon  throughout  the  empire, 
and,  strange  to  say,  he  is  in  these  temples  represented  in  the 
form  of  a man. 

Another  object  of  worship,  -which  is  invested  with  great 
importance  in  the  eyes  of  the  people,  is  that  of  the  Tu-ti  Poo- 
sah,  or  “ Earth  God.”  To  a passing  traveller  no  object  of 
idolatrous  worship  would  be  more  observable  than  the  idols 
of  this  class,  as  they  are  everywhere  seen  by  the  roadside. 
They  are  lowest  in  dignity  of  the  gods  of  China,  and  on  that 
account  the  worship  of  them  is  regarded  as  most  important 
and  indispensable,  for  the  same  reason  that  a citizen  has  more 
to  do,  practically,  with  the  petty  officers  of  his  village  than 
with  his  sovereign. 

The  size  of  the  images  corresponds  to  the  inferiority  of  the 
god.  The|^re  generally  made  of  stone,  and  are  found  in  un- 
frequented as  well  as  populous  places.  They  arc  seen  in  little 
shrines  a few  feet  high  in  the  open  country,  or  in  resting- 
houses  or  pavilions  by  the  roadside.  In  the  lists  of  the  gods 
they  correspond  to  the  country  constables,  who  have  the 
charge  of  small  neighborhoods.  Not  only  different  neighbor- 
hoods but  hills  and  bridges  have  their  Tu-ti  Poo-sah.  Like 
other  gods,  those  of  this  class  are  also  supposed  to  be  good 
men  of  former  times,  but  they  are  so  numerous  and  insignifi- 
cant that  they  are  not  designated  by  particular  names,  but 
only  by  the  general  name  Tu-ti,  coupled  with  the  names  of 
the  places  over  which  they  preside. 


124 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


But  the  insignificant  image  of  the  Tu-ti  fails  to  satisfy  the 
people  in  paying  their  homage  to  the  earth,  and  they  also 
worship  the  divinity  of  the  earth  without  an  image.  Re- 
specting this  worship  the  Chinese  have  very  confused  and 
conflicting  views.  They  speak  of  this  divinity  as  a divine 
emanation  from  the  earth,  or  an  all-pervading,  life-giving  in- 
fluence, connected  with  and  everywhere  existing  in  earthly 
matter.  They  have  the  greatest  dread  of  offending  this  deity, 
and  hardly  dare  to  move  a clod  of  earth  for  fear  of  incurring 
his  displeasure.  Accordingly,  when  earth  is  to  be  removed 
for  any  purpose,  a ceremony  is  performed,  called  Kao  tu,  or 
informing  the  earth.  This  ceremony  consists  in  offering  idol- 
atrous worship,  and  sacrifices  of  food,  in  the  usual  manner, 
with  the  design  of  acquainting  the  divinity  with  the  intention 
of  the . offerer,  and  of  securing  his  favor  and  assistance. 
These  ceremonies  are  always  performed  preparatory  to  laying 
the  foundation  of  a house  or  a wall,  or  constructing  kitchen 
ranges,  tombs,  etc.  It  is  currently  reported  and  believed  that 
if  any  of  the  works  are  undertaken  by  an  individual  neglect- 
ing these  ceremonies  he  will  be  punished  by  violent  pains,  if 
not  protracted  disease  or  death. 

It  is  useless  to  refer  to  other  gods  of  less  note,  descriptions 
of  which  might  be  added  indefinitely.  Many  of  the  national 
gods,  or  deified  heroes  of  China,  might  properly  be  regarded 
as  belonging  to  Tauism,  and  many  of  the  supe^ditious  prac- 
tices of  the  people,  which  will^e  described  in  su sequent  chap- 
ters, seem  to  have  been  suggested  by  and  naturally  to  belong 
to  this  system. 

Tauism,  on  account  of  its  native  origin,  or  more  pretentious 
character,  or  for  both  reasons  combined,  is  preferred  to  Bud- 
dhism by  the  Chinese  rulers,  and  Tauist  priests  and  Tauist 
forms  are  constantly  made  use  of  in  the  State  worship,  which 
will  be  described  in  the  next  chapter. 

Idols  in  Tauist  temples  are  generally  of  a smaller  size  than 
those  of  Buddhism,  and,  unlike  the  latter,  many  of  them  are 
found  in  a second  or  upper  story.  In  the  general  appearance 


EMPLOYMENTS  OF  TAUI8T  PRIESTS. 


125 


of  Buddhist  and  Tauist  idols  there  is  nothing  to  distinguish 
them ; and  the  temples  belonging  to  these  different  systems 
both  externally  and  internally  present  very  nearly  the  same 
appearance. 

The  priests  of  Tauism  are  comparatively  few.  Their  ranks  . 
are  filled  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  the  Buddhist  priest- 
hood, and  their  employments  in  the  temples  are  very  much 
the  same.  They  ha\e  a dress  which  distinguishes  them  from 
the  common  people  as  well  as  from  Buddhist  priests,  and  are 
not  absolutely  required  to  live  on  a vegetable  diet.  They  do 
not  shave  the  whole  head  like  Buddhists,  but  the  hair,  which 
is  left  to  grow  like  that  of  the  common  people,  is,  instead  of 
being  braided  in  a cue,  tied  in  a knot  on  the  top  of  the  head. 

While  the  object  of  the  Buddhist  devotee  is  to  be  absorbed 
into  the  unconscious  being  of  his  favorite  idol,  that  of  the 
Tauist  is  to  become  a Sien-jin,  that  is,  one  of  the  genii.  It  is 
difficult  to  give  a clear  idea  of  the  Chinese  conception  of  Sien- 
jin.  They  are  beings  who,  by  certain  precautions,  escape 
death,  and  •with  ethereal  bodies,  capable  of  assuming  different 
forms  and  shapes,  enjoy  an  uninterrupted  existence  of  dreamy 
happiness,  either  separated  from  or  mingling  with  the  race  of 
mortals  at  pleasure.  The  principal  and  favorite  places  of  their 
abode  are  four  sacred  mountains,  situated  far  in  the  unknown 
ocean,  and  separated  from  the  abodes  of  men  by  a sea  filled 
with  a subtile  fluid  called  J'oh-sliwuy — “weak  water,”  which 
is  not  even  capable  of  supporting  a feather. 

To  the  attainment  of  this  state  of  blessedness  three  things 
are  requisite  : the  cultivation  of  the  heart,  a peculiar  discipline 
for  the  body,  and  the  elixir  of  life,  or  a potion  with  an  inher- 
ent virtue  to  insure  immortality.  The  cultivation  of  the  heart 
consists  in  leading  a life  of  retirement,  austerity,  and  medita-  . 
tion.  The  peculiar  regimen  to  which  the  body  is  subjected  is 
designed  to  husband  and  retain  the  natural  energies  of  the 
physical  system,  and  promote  and  increase  its  vitality.  It  con- 
sists in  the  unmeaning  acts  of  sitting  cross-legged,  swallowing 
the  saliva,  rubbing  the  flesh  (particularly  the  ears,  the  hands, 


126 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


and  the  crown  of  the  head),  rolling  the  eyes,  and  striking  to- 
gether the  teeth.  The  work  of  preparing  the  elixir  of  life,  which 
is  called  Lien-tan,  must  he  performed  by  each  devotee  for  him- 
self. Having  collected  the  proper  ingredients,  they  are  put  in  a 
large  kettle  and  boiled  over  a fire,  neither  too  hot  nor  too  cold, 
for  a period  of  eighty-one  days.  It  is  said  that  if  the  devotee 
lias  been  laborious  and  conscientious  in  his  previous  prepara- 
tion of  mind  and  body,  the  attempt  will* prove  successful;  if 
not,  all  his  efforts  will  be  unavailing.  Few  at  the  present  day 
have  any  idea  of  becoming  Sien-jin,  or  regard  the  priesthood 
in  any  other  light  than  as  a means  of  obtaining  a livelihood. 

The  Shin  Sien  Tun g Kien,  a “ Complete%Eirror  of  Gods  and 
Genii,”  which  is  a work  of  four  large  volumes,  gives  an  account 
of  the  history  and  character  of  more  than  three  hundred  Sien- 
jin,  together  with  curious  statements  respecting  the  origin  of 
the  world  and  mankind. 

While  the  above  mode  of  becoming  Sien-jin  is  regarded  as 
the  proper  and  authorized  one,  it  is  supposed  that  the  same 
end  may  be  attained  in  a shorter  and  easier  manner  by  the 
use  of  magic,  the  invocation  of  evil  spirits,  and  by  obtaining 
in  different  ways  the  principle  of  vitality  from  other  human 
bodies.  This  class  of  Sien-jin,  though  possessed  of  equal  pow- 
ers with  others,  are  regarded  as  unauthorized  intruders,  doom- 
ed to  a violent  and  untimely  end. 

It  is  remarkable  that  many  kinds  of  animals  are  supposed 
to  have  the  power  of  attaining  to  the  same  condition  of  spirits 
or  demons,  and  that  in  doing  so  there  are  also  for  them  author- 
ized and  unauthorized  methods.  It  is  said  that  a fox,  according 
to  the  authorized  mode,  can  attain  to  this  state  in  one  thousand 
years.  Animals  are,  however,  supposed  generally  to  use  other 
irregular  means  to  expedite  their  progress.  Cats  are  particu- 
larly liable  to  the  suspicion  of  wishing  to  better  their  condi- 
tion in  the  scale  of  existence,  and  are  said  to  accomplish  this 
end  in  two  ways.  The  first  and  most  effective  is  that  of  draw- 
ing the  vital  principle  from  the  bodies  of  men,  which  desire  is 
supposed  to  account  for  their  fondness  of  proximity  to  the 


WORSHIP  OF  THE  PEOPLE  IX  TAUIST  TEMPLES.  127 

human  species ; another  method  is  that  of  drawing  a revivify- 
ing principle  from  the  rays  of  the  moon  when  full-orbed.  It 
is  said  and  believed  that  cats  are  often  seen  on  moonlight 
nights  drinking  in  with  open  mouth  the  virtues  of  these  rays, 
and  that  they  sometimes  worship,  after  the  manner  of  men,  the 
bright-faced  luminary.  It  is  generally  believed  that  a host  of 
demons  and  evil  spirits,  which  afflict  and  bring  misery  upon 
men,  have  their  origin  in  this  manner,  and  that  after  avoiding 
for  a time  the  vengeance  of  the  gods  they  are  destined  sooner 
or  later  to  be  destroyed  by  lightning,  as  no  less  subtle  agent  can 
affect  them.  . 

The  people  are  accustomed  from  infancy  to  hear  stories  of 
ghosts  and  spirits  and  genii ; and  the  natural  desire  for  the 
marvellous,  without  the  guidance  and  restraints  of  revelation, 
grows  by  what  it  feeds  upon,  and  prepares  the  mind  for  the 
reception  of  monstrous  absurdities,  and  for  being  swayed  by 
groundless  fears. 

Comparatively  speaking,  there  is  little  to  attract  women  to 
Tauist  temples  as  worshipers.  There  is,  however,  a system 
of  fast  days  which  is  the  source  of  some  small  gain  to  the 
priests.  As  it  is  regarded  meritorious  to  fast,  there  are  fast 
days  connected  with  the  worship  of  several  idols,  and  the  ob- 
servance of  these  days  is  supposed  to  secure  the  favor  and  pro- 
tection of  these  different  idols.  Some  women  observe  the  fast 
days  of  one  idol,  some  of  another,  and  some  of  several  at  the 
same  time,  and  when  the  prescribed  days  are  completed  they 
resort  to  the  temples  to  celebrate  the  event  with  thanksgiving, 
and  are  expected  to  leave  more  or  less  money  with  the  priests. 
It  is  common,  when  an  individual  is  sick,  for  different  mem- 
bers of  his  family  to  assume  vows  to  perform  each  one  a differ- 
ent fast  for  his  benefit.  Children  also,  as  a mark  of  filial  piety 
sometimes  undertake  fasts  for  the  benefit  of  their  parents.  O.  i 
the  birthdays  of  different  gods  the  temples  are  also  visited  l>\ 
considerable  numbers  of  women.  The  money  derived  from  this 
ordinary  worship,  from  occasional  services  at  funerals,  etc.,  and 
from  the  proceeds  of  the  lands  connected  with  different  estab- 


12« 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


laments,  serves  to  keep  the  buildings  in  repair,  and  supports 
the  few  priests  connected  with  them. 

The  following  are  prominent  among  the  religious  practices 
or  ceremonies  of  Tauism : 

Fall  hih — “ Sending  a Dispatch,”  is  performed  in  cases 
of  sickness.  A statement  of  the  idolatrous  worship  which 
has  been  performed  is  written  on  a piece  of  paper,  together 
with  a petition  to  some  deity  for  assistance.  This  paper  is 
burned  by  the  officiating  priest,  who  professes  to  determine 
by  observing  the  process  of  burning  whether  the  god  returns 
a favorable  or  unfavorable  answer. 

Shang-tien-piau — “ Sending  a Message  to  Heaven,”  also 
consists  in  burning  a paper  on  which  the  message  is  written. 
The  performer  of  the  ceremony,  in  this  case,  feigns  sleep 
when  the  paper  is  being  burned,  and  it  is  believed  that  his 
soul  leaves  the  body,  conveys  the  message  to  heaven,  and 
brings  back  an  answer  in  return. 

Another  ceremony,  called  Hwa-fu — “Writing  a Charm,” 
consists  in  writing  a few  unintelligible  characters,  or  delinea- 
ting a rude  representation  of  a god  on  a small  piece  of  paper, 
which  is  regarded  as  representing  or  securing  the  presence  of 
some  divinity.  Such  pieces  of  paper  are  sometimes  hung  over 
the  bed  of  a sick  person  as  a spell. 

A few  of  the  more  expert  of  the  Tauist  priests  are  sup- 
posed to  be  possessed  of  a knowledge  of  enchantments  and 
incantations,  which  they  generally  profess  to  have  derived 
from  some  of  the  Sien-jin,  or  genii.  By  the  repeating  of  these 
incantations,  they  are  believed  to  have  the  power  of  inflicting 
evil  upon  men,  and  calling  spirits  to  their  aid,  and  subjecting 
them  to  their  commands.  A book  of  six  volumes,  called 
T Van  fah  kwei  tsung,  a “ Collection  of  a Thousand  Magic 
Arts,”  contains  a description  in  detail  of  different  kinds  of 
magic,  sorcery,  and  juggling. 

There  is  connected  with  Tauism  a class  of  books  which 
are  designed  to  promote  the  cultivation  of  virtue,  and  are 
gratuitously  distributed  by  those  who  wish  to  acquire  merit 


BOOKS  CONNECTED  WITH  TAUISM. 


129 


by  so  doing.  One  of  tlieswis  the  Yuh  lih  chcm  chioen,  which 
gives  the  different  punishments  of  hell  consequent  on  the  com- 
mission of  different  crimes,  with  a view  to  deter  men  from 
the  commission  of  these  crimes. 

The  Kung  Jcioo  Jceh,  or  “ Graduated  Scale  of  Merit,”  gives 
the  comparative  amount  of  merit  or  demerit  belonging  to  dif- 
ferent actions.  Other  works  of  the  same  character,  and  moral 
tracts  on  the  cultivation  of  different  virtues,  are  frequently 
circulated  by  the  rich,  but  it  is  done  rather  from  the  desire 
to  secure  merit  and  the  praise  of  men  than  the  hope  of  really 
benefiting  others. 

As  compared  with  Buddhism,  the  number  of  Tauist  tem- 
ples, and  the  number  of  worshipers  in  them,  and  the  amount 
of  money  expended  in  this  worship,  are  insignificant.  The 
reason  why  Tauist  temples  are  comparatively  so  few,  and  so 
much  neglected,  is  because  this  religion  does  not  treat  of  sin, 
and  escape  from  its  consequences,  and  has  for  its  object  a 
prolongation  of  this  life  rather  than  preparation  for  the  life  to 
come. 

F 2 


130 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  X. 

NATIONAL  RELIGIOUS  RITES  AND  BELIEFS. 

These  Rites  originated  in  various  Periods,  and  from  various  Sources. — They 
are  regarded  as  possessed  of  a superior  and  orthodox  Character. — Ances- 
tral Worship. — Worship  of  the  Kitchen  God. — State  Worship,  or  that 
performed  by  Officers  in  the  Capital  and  in  the  Provinces. — Worship  of 
Confucius  and  of  the  God  of  War,  and  the  God  of  Literature. — Sacri- 
fices to  neglected  Ghosts. — Welcoming  of  the  Spring. — Worship  of  Dei- 
fied Heroes. 

I propose  in  this  chapter  to  speak  of  various  religious  be- 
liefs and  forms  of  idolatrous  worship  which  have  originated 
at  different  times  and  from  different  sources,  and  have  re- 
ceived a more  or  less  formal  recognition  and  sanction,  not  only 
from  the  people  generally,  but  from  the  government.  Some 
of  these  forms  of  worship  present  the  idolatrous  side  of  Con- 
fucianism, in  distinction  from  the  preceptive  or  moral  features 
of  it  which  were  given  in  the  third  chapter.  Other  idolatrous 
rites  seemgto  have  resulted  from  the  teachings  of  Buddhism 
and  Tauism.  The  whole  constitutes  the  natural  outgrowth 
of  the  Chinese  mind,  under  the  various  influences  to  which  it 
has  been  subjected,  and  presents  to  their  view  a kind  of  su- 
perior, refined,  authorized,  and  orthodox  system  of  worship. 

First  and  foremost  among  the  national  idolatrous  rites  of 
China  stands  Ancestral  Worship,  which  properly  belongs  to 
Confucianism,  having  been  practiced  long  before  the  time 
of  Confucius,  and  sanctioned  by  his  teachings  and  example. 
It  is  one  of  the  oldest  forms  of  idolatry  now  known  in  China ; 
it  has  the  strongest  hold  on  the  minds  of  the  people,  and  is 
one  of  the  principal  obstacles  in  the  way  of  the  introduction 
of  Christianity.  Its  observances  are  regarded  as  a necessary 
part  of  the  duties  belonging  to  filial  piety,  and  they  are  en- 


THE  WORSHIP  OF  ANCESTORS. 


131 


gaged  in  with  great  preciseness  and  ostentation.  Besides 
the  motives  arising  from  a grateful  recollection  of  past  fa- 
vors, children  are 
prompted  to  en- 
gage in  acts  of 
religious  homage 
to  their  parents 
by  the  hope  of  be- 
ing protected  by 
them,  and  the  fear 
of  incurring  their 
displeasure. 

The  visible  ob- 
jects of  worship 
are  ancestral  tab- 
lets and  painted 
portraits  of  the 
deceased.  The 
tablets  or  paint- 
ings of  both  par- 
’ents  are  invaria- 
bly worshiped  to- 
gether if  both  are 
dead.  The  ances- 
tral tablets  arc 
made  of  wood, 
and  are  about  a 
foot  high.  The 
characters  writ- 
ten upon  them  re- 
cord the  name  and 
title  of  the  de- 
ceased, with  the 
precise  hour  of 
their  birth  and 

ANCESTRAL  TABLET  KEPEEBENTJNG  ONE  PERSON,  dCUth,  lUKl  tllC 


132 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


names  of  their  sons.  It  is  supposed  that  a man  has  three 
spirits,  one  of  which,  after  death,  resides  in  this  tablet,  and 
another  in  the  tomb,  while  the  third  goes  to  Hades,  and  in 
process  of  time  reappears  in  a new  state  of  existence. 

The  paintings  or  effigies,  which  are  also  objects  of  worship, 
are  taken  after  death.  Though  they  may  to  some  degree  re- 
semble the  individual  whom  they  represent,  they  are  very  un- 
like the  portrait  of  a living  person.  They  have  also  their 
peculiar  name,  which  serves  still  further  to  mark  the  distinc- 
tion between  them  and  portraits  of  the  living.  These  effigies 
are  generally  brought  out  and  worshiped  only  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  new  year,  on  the  birthdays  of  the  deceased,  and 
when  they  are  honored  with  theatrical  exhibitions. 

The  worship  of  ancestors  differs  very  little  in  its  character 
from  that  of  idols,  and  consists  in  prostrations,  offerings  of 
cooked  food,  and  the  burning  of  incense,  candles,  and  paper- 
money,  and  sometimes  theatrical  plays.  It  is  performed  at 
the  dwelling-house,  the  family  temple,  or  the  tomb. 

Family  temples  are  large  and  costly  edifices,  resembling,  in 
their  external  appearance,  temples  for  the  worship  of  idols. 
Like  them,  the  high  wall  on  the  outside  encloses  a large  open 
court,  in  one  end  of  which  is  a stage  for  theatricals.  In  the 
building  on  the  side  of  the  court  opposite  the  stage  you  see, 
instead  of  the  idols  found  in  temples  dedicated  to  them,  a 
large  collection  of  ancestral  tablets  deposited  on  shelves, 
about  four  or  five  inches  wide,  extending  all  the  way  across 
the  temple,  and  rising  one  above  another  from  the  front  like 
the  seats  of  a gallery.  These  tablets  sometimes  date  back  a 
thousand  years,  and  are  very  numerous.  In  connection  with 
ancestral  temples  are  often  found  genealogical  tables,  but 
many  temples  with  small  incomes  are  unable  to  procure  them, 
on  account  of  the  trouble  and  expense  which  they  necessitate. 

These  temples  ai'e  constructed  by  the  wealthy  in  honor  of 
their  immediate  ancestors,  and  at  first  contain  only  the  tablets 
of  a few  generations.  As  the  family  increases  from  age  to 
age,  though  it  may  contain  many  poor  members,  it  generally 


ANCESTRAL  TEMPLES. 


133 


includes  enough  wealth  to  keep  the  temple  in  repair  and  pro- 
vide for  its  expenses.  It  is  very  common  for  persons  of  prop- 
erty at  their  death  to  leave  a piece  of  ground  for  the  use  of 
the  family  temple,  the  yearly  proceeds  of  which  are  added  to 
a common  fund  for  repairs  and  providing  sacrifices  and  the- 
atricals. 

The  tablets  of  deceased  females  are  seldom  found  in  the 
temples,  though  they  sometimes  occupy  separate  side  apart- 
ments. The  tablets  of  unmarried  males  are  nQt  generally  ad- 
mitted. In  cases  of  the  death  of  unmarried  young  men  of 
particular  promise  and  prominence,  the  following  expedient 
is  adopted  to  rescue  their  names  from  oblivion.  An  arrange- 
ment is  made  wjth  another  family  which  has  lost  a member 
of  about  the  same  age  of  the  opposite  sex,  by  which  ceremo- 
nies representing  the  betrothal  and  marriage  of  the  deceased 
parties  are  performed.  After  this,  a child  of  some  other 
member  of  the  family  may  be  reckoned  to  them,  as  a son,  and 
so  the  line  of  the  deceased  be  transmitted,  and  his  tablet, 
with  those  of  his  reputed  wife  and  descendants,  placed  in  the 
family  temple.  Abandoned  characters  are  also  denied  the 
privilege  of  participating"^  the  ceremonies  of  the  family  tem- 
ple while  living,  or  having  their  tablets  deposited  in  it  when 
dead.  Such  persons  are  said  to  be  “ expelled  from  the  family.” 

Ancestral  temples  are  perhaps  more  numerous  than  any 
others  in  China.  Almost  every  small  village  contains  at  least 
one,  most  of  these  villages  being  composed  principally  of  in- 
habitants of  the  same  name  or  family. 

The  ancestral  temple  is  the  most  sacred  spot  on  earth  to  a 
Chinaman.  Here  repose  the  spirits  of  his  ancestors ; this  is 
the  place  for  family  meetings  on  sacrificial  days  ; here  he  ex- 
pects that  his  spirit  will  find  its  last  resting-place,  and  share 
in  the  homage  and  offerings  of  future  generations.  These 
facts  relating  to  ancestral  worship  explain  the  anxiety  of  the 
Chinese  who  visit  our  Western  coast  to  have  their  bodies  car- 
ried back  to  their  homes  in  case  of  death.  They  wish  their 
dust  to  mingle  with  that  of  their  ancestors,  and  their  spirit^ 


131 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


to  bo  restored  to  their  ancestral  temples,  else  they  would  be 
unhoused,  unfed,  uncared  for  ; wandering,  starving,  homeless 
ghosts  in  a foreign  land — a condition  than  which  nothing  im- 
aginable is  more  to  be  dreaded. 

As  regards  the  sacrifices  in  ancestral  temples,  we  some- 
times say  to  the  people  offering  them,  “ Nothing  is  eaten ; 
when  you  take  it  away  to  eat  it  yourselves,  it  remains  the 
same  in  substance,  weight,  and  taste.  “ True,”  they  are  apt  to 
reply,  “ spirits. do  not  partake  of  material  food;  they  appro- 
priate the  spiritual  or  impalpable  essence  or  exhalations,  and 
when  they  have  satisfied  themselves,  we  make  use  of  what  re- 
mains.” Others,  more  intelligent  and  thoughtful,  reply,  “We 
know  that  nothing  is  eaten;  but  we  can  pot  rest  satisfied 
without  giving  some  outward  expression  of  our  grateful  feel- 
ings ; we  wish  to  indicate  how  fondly  we  cherish  the  memo- 
ry of  our  ancestors,  how  happy  we  should  be  to  have  them 
sit  down  with  us  at  our  board,  and  to  have  the  privilege  of 
ministering  to  their  wants.” 

The  worship  of  the  Kitchen  God  oc- 
cupies also  an  important  place  in  the 
national  religious  rites.  This  form  of 
idolatry  is  about  as  ancient  as  the  one 
just  described,  and  as  universal,  being 
practiced  in  every  family.  The  Kitchen 
God  has  no  temple,  and  no  image.  It 
is  worshiped  under  the  representation 
of  a paper  engraving,  generally  about 
a foot  square,  which  is  pasted  on  the 
kitchen  range.  This  may  be  regarded 
as  the  household  divinity  of  China.  It 
is  supposed  that  it  takes  cognizance  of 
every  thing  which  transpires  in  the  fami- 
ly, and  makes  a report  at  the  close  of  the  year,  in  the  presence 
of  the  chief  of  the  gods,  Yuh-hwang-ta-ti.  The  night  when 
he  is  supposed  to  take  his  departure  is  regarded  as  a very  im- 
portant occasion.  All  the  members  of  the  family  are  present, 


GOD  OF  TIIE  KITCHEN. 


WORSHIP  OF  THE  KITCHEN  GOD. 


135 


and  a feast  is  given  for  and  in  honor  of  the  god,  intended  to 
propitiate  him,  and  induce  him  to  make  as  favorable  a report 
at  head-quarters  as  possible.  At  the  close  of  the  feast  the 
paper  god  is  removed  from  the  kitchen  range  and  burned ; 
and  thus  in  imagination  is  transported  on  the  wings  of  flame 
to  the  spirit  land,  and  the  kitchen  is  for  a few  days  without 
a god.  On  the  first  day  of  the  new  year  a new  paper  is  pro- 
cured, and  the  Kitchen  God  is  invoked  to  resume  his  place  in 
the  family.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  belief  of  the 
constant  presence  of  this  god  has  the  tendency  to  restrain 
from  evil,  and  to  bring  the  words  and  actions  of  the  fam- 
ily into  closer  accord  with  what  they  deem  to  be  right  and' 
proper. 

The  State  Worship  forms  a prominent  part  of  the  national 
religious  observances  of  the  Chinese.  By  the  term  State  wor- 
ship as  here  used  is  meant,  not  forms  of  worship  recommend- 
ed by  the  State  to  the  people,  but  those  practiced  exclusively 
by  the  rulers,  in  which  the  people  have  no  part.  It  consists  in 
the  use  of  idolatrous  rites  and  ceremonies,  made  binding  by  the 
Constitution  of  the  empire  on  all  its  officers,  including  the 
Emperor  and  the  imperial  clan  in  the  capital.  These  services 
being  involuntary  and  constrained,  are,  of  all  the  varieties  of 
Chinese  worship,  the  most  formal  and  heartless.  They  are 
Chiefly  a perpetuation  of  ancient  usages,  and  are  conducted  and 
regulated,  for  the  most  part,  by  rules  prescribed  in  the  ancient 
classics,  particularly  the  Book  of  Rites. 

In  the  capital,  the  Emperor  and  members  of  the  imperial 
clan,  and  high  officers  of  state  connected  with  the  Board  of 
Rites,  worship  and  sacrifice  to  objects  which  are  divided  into 
three  classes  or  grades.  First  and  highest  are*  “ heaven,  earth, 
spirits  of  deceased  monai-chs  of  the  present  dynasty,  and  gods 
of  the  land  and  grain,  and  the  special  patrons  of  the  dynasty. 
Under  the  second  grade  are  eight  objects,  viz : the  sun,  the 
moon,  the  manes  of  the  emperors  and  kings  of  former  dynas- 


* Williams’s  “ Middle  Kingdom.’’ 


136 


CHINA  AND  TIIE  CHINESE. 


ties,  Confucius,  the  ancient  patrons  of  agriculture  and  silk 
weaving,  the  gods  of  heaven  and  of  earth,  and  of  the  passing 
year.”  The  inferior  objects  are  “the  ancient  patrons  of  the 
healing  art,  and  the  innumerable  spirits  of  deceased  philan- 
thropists, eminent  statesmen,  martyrs  to  virtue,  etc.,  clouds, 
rain,  wind,  and  thunder,  the  five  celebrated  mountains,  four 
seas  and  four  rivers,  famous  hills,  and  great  water-courses,  btc.” 
The  worship  of  these  objects  is  performed  in  different  temples, 
and  with  different  ceremonies,  which  it  is  impossible  to  de- 
scribe in  detail. 

Of  the  rites  belonging  to  the  State  worship  performed  by 
officers  in  the  provinces,  among  the  most  prominent  are  those 
connected  with  the  temples  called  Cheng-hwang-miao . An 
edifice  of  this  kind  may  be  found  in  each  city  in  the  empire. 
Literally  translated,  these  characters  represent  the  “ Temple 
of  the  "Wall  and  Moat.”  These  buildings  contain  the  tutelar 
divinities  of  each  city,  whose  offices  and  duties  are  supposed 
to  correspond  to  those  of  the  actual  living  officers.  These  two 
classes  of  rulers,  spiritual  and  corporeal,  are  thus  associated  to- 
gether, and  administer  the  affairs  of  the  city  conjointly.  This 
superstition  is  in  accordance  with  a general  notion  very  prev- 
alent in  China,  that  an  exact  correspondence  exists  between 
the  visible  and  invisible  worlds. 

These  Gheng-livmng-miao  are  among  the  largest  and  finest 
specimens  of  Chinese  architecture,  and  in  the  eyes  of  the  peo- 
ple form  one  of  the  chief  attractions  of  every  city.  They  are 
regarded  much  in  the  same  light  as  the  Yia  muns,  or  residen- 
ces of  the  city  officers.  Accordingly,  in  addition  to  the  Cheng- 
hwang,  or  ruler  of  the  city,  the  temple  is  filled  with  images 
of  inferior  officers  and  servants.  In  the  back  part  are  private 
apartments,  containing  images  of  the  Cheng-hwang's  wives, 
and  a room  completely  furnished  with  a bed  (which  is  made 
every  day)  and  clothes-racks,  clothes-presses,  etc.  Shoes  and 
different  articles  of  wearing  apparel  are  frequently  presented 
to  the  Cheng-hwang  and  his  wives,  whose  clothes  are  contin- 
ually changed  with  the  changing  seasons.  On  the  first  and 


STATE  WORSHIP. 


137 


fifteenth  of  each  month,  the  officers  visit  this  temple  early 
in  the  morning,  with  a large  retinue  and  great  parade,  to  pay 
their  respects,  the  ceremony  consisting  in  making  prostrations 
and  burning  incense.  In  times  of  exigency  and  doubt  the  offi- 
cers also  apply  to  the  Cheng-hwang  for  assistance,  as  both  the 
visible  and  invisible  rulers  are  regarded  as  j ointly  responsible 
for  the  prosperity  of  the  city  and  the  execution  of  the  laws. 
In  times  of  drought  or  sickness  the  officers  repair  to  the  Cheng- 
liwang  to  pray  him  to  intercede  with  Yuh-hwang  Shang- 
ti,  who  is  chief  of  all  the  gods,  in  their  behalf.  When  difficul- 
ties arise  among  the  people,  or  it  is  impossible  to  bring  offend- 
ers to  j ustice,  the  same  expedient  is  sometimes  resorted  to. 

As  the  business  of  the  Cheng-hwang  is  supposed  to  call 
him  occasionally  away  from  the  temple,  a smaller  image  is 
made  about  the  size  of  a man,  which  is  borne  through  the 
streets  as  officers  are,  while  the  larger  one  always  remains  in 
its  place  in  the  temple. 

It  being  customary  in  China  for  officers  to  be  continually 
removed  from  one  place  to  another  by  the  will  of  the  Emper- 
or, so  it  is  supposed  that  the  divinities  of  each  city  are  contin- 
ually changing.  Accordingly,  the  gods  of  this  temple  do  not, 
like  others,  have  permanent  names.  The  same  images  answer 
from  year  to  year,  but  the  individual  spirits  are  supposed  to 
change.  It  is  believed  that  a man  in  the  province  of  Kiang- 
si,  called  Chang-tien-sz,  who  has  an  office  which  is  transmit- 
ted in  his  family  from  one  generation  to  another,  is  possessed 
of  means  of  communicatirfg  with  spirits,  and  he  is  continual- 
ly consulted  with  reference  to  what  individual  of  the  past  is 
exercising  jurisdiction  over  particular  cities. 

But  the  people  are  also  interested  in  the  Cheng-hicang-miao, 
and  it  may  be  well  to  mention  in  this  connection  some  of  the 
ceremonies  which  they  perform  in  it,  though  they  are  not  a 
part  of  the  State  worship,  being  entirely  voluntary.  They 
look  up  to  the  idols  which  it  contains  as  their  protectors,  and 
often  appeal  to  them  Avhen  they  are  wronged  by  their  fellow- 
citizens,  or  fail  to  obtain  justice  from  their  rulers.  The  names 


138 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


of  ten  large  idols  found  in  the  temple  of  a Fa  city  will  indi- 
cate their  characters  and  the  use  which  is  made  of  them. 
The  first  is  Ilici-ti-sz , who  is  supposed  to  take  charge  of  the 
garments  with  which  the  dead  are  buried.  After  the  death 
of  an  individual  an  accurate  list  is  made  of  his  clothes,  which 
list  is  supposed,  by  being  burned,  to  be  transmitted  to  this 
god,  whose  business  it  is  to  see  that  the  possessor  is  not  rob- 
bed of  them  on  his  way  to  Ilades.  After  this  idol  are  seen 
in  regular  order  Fuh-luh-sz,  who  presides  over  happiness  and 
wages ; Ghau-tsu-sz , who  presides  over  cursing  and  railing, 
keeping  an  accurate  account  of  all  sins  of  this  kind  which  are 
committed ; Li-yih-sz,  who  presides  over  boundaries ; Sang- 
chan-sz,  who  presides  over  child-birth ; Tscti-sang-sz,  who  pre- 
sides over  the  slaying  of  animals ; Kiai-ngeli-sz , who  presides 
over  persons  in  distress;  W an-yih-sz,  who  presides  over  the 
pestilence ; Suh-pu-sz,  the  quick  avenger,  and  Yiu-sJiau-sz,  who 
adds  length  of  days. 

The  Suh-pu-sz,  or  quick  avenger,  is  worshiped  more  than 
all  the  other  gods  together. 

Many  are  the  wonderful  tales  which  are  told  in  proof  of  his 
vigilance  and  power.  He  is  applied  to  for  revenge  by  those 
who  have  been  falsely  accused ; those  who  have  had  property 
stolen ; those  who,  though  in  the  right,  have  been  overcome 
in  lawsuits  by  persons  possessed  of  wealth  and  influence ; 
those  who  have  difficulties  in  settling  accounts,  and  by  others 
under  similar  circumstances.  His  assistance  is  generally 
sought  in  the  following  manner : »The  suppliant  goes  to  the 
temple  in  company  with  a priest,  or  master  of  ceremonies, 
who  writes  a fa,  or  charm,  and  nails  it  with  a chicken’s  head 
before  the  god.  This  is  done  with  the  design  of  arousing 
him,  and  bringing  the  importance  of  the  case  distinctly  before 
him.  A paper  is  also  burned,  stating  the  character  of  the  of- 
fense; and  when  this  ceremony  is  performed  the  matter  is 
left  in  the  hands  of  the  god. 

Persons  bitterly  enraged  against  each  other  sometimes 
meet  before  this  god  to  ask  him  to  be  the  arbiter  of  their  dif- 


WORSHIP  OF  CONFUCIl'S. 


139 


faculties,  and  go  away  from  his  presence  satisfied  that  the 
matter  will  be  properly  disposed  of,  and  that  the  offending 
party  will  sooner  or  later  meet  with  condign  punishment. 
Some  present  their  grievances  before  the  god  in  a clandestine 
manner  for  fear  of  irritating  the  opposite  party  by  a knowl- 
edge of  the  course  that  they  are  pursuing ; some  are  fright- 
ened into  the  performance  of  duty  by  the  threat  of  having  their 
case  brought  before  Suli-pu-sz.  It  is  commonly  reported  that 
guilty  persons  who  have  been  accused  before  this  god  are  oft- 
en seized  with  extreme  mental  and  bodily  anguish,  and  die 
uttering  incoherent  expressions  respecting  their  crimes,  and 
the  punishment,  they  are  suffering  for  them  from  the  hands 
of  this  avenger. 

Each  city  in  China  contains 
honor  of  Confucius,  in  which 
officers  are  required  to  present 
worship  and  offerings  on  the 
occasions  of  the  vernal  and  au- 
tumnal equinoxes.  These  tem- 
ples, which  are  generally  large 
and  costly,  contain  no  images, 
as  the  Chinese  have  too  much 
respect  for  Confucius  to  wor- 
ship him  through  an  image. 

This  would  be  degrading  him 
to  the  level  of  ordinary  gods. 

He  is  represented  in  the  most 
prominent  place  in  the  build- 
ing by  a tablet,  upon  which  is 
inscribed,  in  large  gold  char- 
acters, “ The  Great  and  Holy 
Sage.”  Tablets  representing 
his  principal  disciples,  to  the  number  of  several  hundreds,  oc- 
cupy subordinate  places.  The  services  in  this  temple  are  per- 
formed by  the  officers  and  their  attendants  at  the  fifth  watch, 
which  is  before  day-break.  Whole  oxen,  hogs,  and  sheep  are 


also  a temple  erected  to  the 


TRADITIONAL  LIKENESS  OF  CONFUCIUS. 


140 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


included  among  the  offerings.  The  plates  and  dishes,  as  well 
as  the  instruments  of  music  which  are  used,  are  of  an  antique 
style,  and  every  thing  connected  with  the  worship  is  calcu- 
lated to  designate  it  as  peculiarly  important  and  sacred. 

The  officers  are  also  retired 
to  worship  regularly  in  the  tem- 
ples of  the  God  of  War  and  the 
God  of  Literature,  one  of  each  of 
which  may  be  found  in  every  Chi- 
nese city.  These  gods,  as  well  as  the 
gods  of  the  Cheng-hwang-miao , 
and  other  popular  divinities,  are 
all  deified  men  of  previous  gener- 
ations. The  object  of  the  govern- 
ment in  prescribing  worship  in 
these  temples  seems  to  be,  not  so 
much  to  propitiate  these  deities 
as  to  secure  the  efficiency  and 
loyalty  of  the  worshipers,  by 
keeping  continually  before  thefn 
the  most  noted  of  the  great  and 
good  of  the  past  as  examples,  and 
perhaps  holding  out  to  them  the  hope  of  being  hereafter  gods 
themselves,  as  their  reward. 

An  idolatrous  ceremony  is  also  required  of  the  officers,  for 
the  benefit  of  neglected  ghosts,  which  will  be  best  understood 
by  reference  to  its  origin.  The  first  Emperor  of  the  Ming 
dynasty  was  in  his  childhood  a lierds-boy.  He  lost  his  parents 
when  very  young,  and  had  no  knowledge  of  the  place  of  their 
interment.  When  he  reached  the  throne,  being  unable  to  sac- 
rifice at  the  graves  of  his  ancestors,  he  commanded  his  officers 
throughout  the  empire  to  sacrifice  three  times  a year  to  the 
shades  of  those  whose  graves  are  neglected.  This  ceremony 
is  still  observed,  and  is  called  Sliih-hu — “ Pitying  the  Unfortu- 
nate.” On  the  appointed  days  the  officers,  together  with  the 
Cheng-hwang,  are  borne  in  sedans  outside  the  city  wall, 


t 

- 


PART  OF  A PROCESSION  IN  HONOR  OF  SPRING,  IN*  WIIIC11  A NOOK  BUFFALO  IS  CARRIED  TIIROVGII  THE  STREETS. 


HERO  WORSHIP. 


143 


where  the  prescribed  offerings  are  made,  and  ceremonies  per- 
formed. 

Another  ceremony,  called  Ying-chun — “ The  Welcoming  of 
Spring,”  is  observed  every  year  on  the  first  day  of  spring.  The 
officers  go  ont  through  the  east  gate  of  the  city,  and  find  clay 
images  of  a ploughman  and  his  ox,  which  have  been  previous- 
ly made  for  the  occasion.  After  witnessing  a theatrical  play 
in  the  temple  of  the  God  of  Agriculture,  which  is  designed  to 
exhort  the  people  to  be  industrious  in  agricultural  pursuits, 
the  two  clay  images  are  brought  back  into  the  city,  when 
idolatrous  worship  is  paid  to  them.  On  the  following  day 
they  are  broken  in  pieces  in  the  hall  devoted  to  the  god  of 
the  passing  year,  which  is  found  in  Tauist  temples.  The  frag- 
ments of  these  images  are  highly  prized,  and  eagerly  sought 
by  the  people,  who  carry  them  to  their  homes  as  a pledge  of 
good  luck  for  the  season.  The  design  of  this  ceremony  seems 
to  be  to  inculcate  veneration  for  the  ox  and  respect  for  hus- 
bandry. 

Homage  paid  to  Deified  Heroes  may  properly  be  regarded 
as  belonging  to  the  national  idolatry  of  China,  as  all  these 
deities  are  prominent  men  in  Chinese  history,  and  have  been 
deified  by  the  express  authority  of  the  Emperor.  The  most 
of  these  gods  are  of  comparatively  recent  origin.  The  births 
of  but  few  date  back  farther  than  the  Sung  dynasty,  which  as- 
sumed the  government  of  the  empire  a.d.  976.  The  title 
or  office  of  a god  is  derived  from  the  reigning  sovereign.  The 
conferring  of  these  titles  sometimes  originates  in  the  wish  of 
the  Emperor  to  hold  up  as  an  example  one  who  has  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  loyalty  or  efficiency  in  the  civil  or  mili- 
tary service,  and  sometimes  in  the  gratitude  of  the  people, 
who  introduce  to  the  Emperor  those  who  have  won  their  hearts 
by  favors,  and  purchase  for  them  divine  titles.  When  a com- 
munity can  not  afford  sufficient  money  to  secure  the  public  ap- 
pointment and  recognition  of  their  favorite  idol,  they  some- 
times erect  their  temple  and  enshrine  their  god  without  this 
recognition.  The  different  offices  or  degrees  of  divine  honor 


144 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


conferred  by  the  Emperor  are  no  less  than  seven,  exclusive 
of  official  titles  of  the  living,  which  are  sometimes  retained 
after  death  as  divine  titles  by  those  who  are  deified.  The  two 
lowest  titles  have  now  fallen  into  disuse,  as  it  would  be  con- 
sidered disrespectful  to  place  a god  at  the  foot  of  the  list. 
Sometimes  persons  are  deified  by  the  Emperor  while  still  liv- 
ing. The  honors  of  the  dead  are  also  often  increased,  on  ac- 
count of  some  imagined  interference  or  protection,  and  they 
are  advanced  to  a higher  gj-ade  in  the  scale  of  deified  digni- 
taries. The  most  of  those  deified  by  the  Emperor  of  his  own 
accord  are  persons  who  have  lost  their  lives  in  his  service,  and 
are  thus  held  up  as  examples  for  imitation.  It  is  a striking 
fact  that,  of  all  the  gods,  only  the  deities  of  the  highest  class 
attain  to  the  title  of  ti,  which  belongs  to  the  Emperor,  who 
seems  to  regard  it  as  an  act  of  condescension  to  share  this 
title  with  them,  and  adds  to  his  own  title  the  character  hwang, 
meaning  greatest. 

Books  which  give  the  names  and  histories  of  the  gods 
only  present  the  most  prominent  of  them,  while  by  far  the 
greater  portion  is  not  noticed.  In  the  Shin  Sien  Tung  Kien, 
or  “ Complete  Mirror  of  Gods  and  Genii,”  compiled  about  two 
hundred  years  ago,  an  account  of  Jesus  our  Saviour,  as  a 
god  of  the  West,  is  given,  in  connection  with  the  histories  of 
many  of  the  gods  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  It  presents  a suc- 
cinct and  truthful  narrative  of  his  birth,  life,  sufferings,  and 
death,  followed  by  statements  respecting  the  deification  and 
worship  of  the  Virgin  Mary ; thus  giving  clear  evidence  of 
its  Roman  Catholic  origin.  Our  indignation  at  seeing  the 
name  of  our  Saviour  in  such  a connection  is  only  abated  by  the 
consideration  that  it  was  done  in  ignorance;  indeed,  most 
Chinese  would  consider  it  a singular  privilege  and  honor  that 
a foreign  name  should  be  thus  associated. 

Of  the  gods  which  are  known  and  worshiped  throughout 
the  whole  empire  there  are  comparatively  very  few.  The  high- 
est rank  and  honors  are  awarded  to  Confucius.  He  was  for- 
merly enrolled  among  the  deities  of  the  empire  with  the  title 


POPULAR  GODS  OF  CHINA. 


145 


hwang,  or  king ; but  an  Emperor  of  the  Ming  dynasty,  think- 
ing it  an  indignity  that  Confucius  should  only  rank  as  equal 
in  divine  honors  to  other  gods  and  to  himself,  determined 
that  none  of  the  ordinary  titles  should  be  applied  to  him,  but 
that  the  whole  nation  should  express  their  special  veneration 
and  indebtedness  to  him  by  calling  him  Ta  Clung  Clie  Shing 
Sien  S — “ The  Great,  Perfect,  Most  Holy  Teacher.” 

Yuh  Ihoang  Ta  Ti,  chief  of  all  the  gods,  has  temples 
erected  to  him  exclusively,  and  his  image  occupies  a promi- 
nent place  in  the  Tauist  temples.  The  people  seldom  pay 
homage  to  him,  however,  and  when  they  do,  it  is  rather  in 
the  form  of  adoration  than  petition,  as  he  is  regarded  as  too 
far  removed  in  dignity  from  mortals  to  take  any  immediate 
cognizance  of  individual  wants. 

The  God  of  W ar  is  everywhere  worshiped,  and  has  temples 
erected  to  him  throughout  the  empire.  During  the  present 
civil  war  in  China  the  Emperor  has  heaped  new  honors  upon 
him,  professedly,  on  account  of  alleged  deliverances,  but  no 
doubt  principally  to  inspire  confidence  in  the  fortunes  of  his 
dynasty. 

The  God  of  Wealth,  though  inferior  to  many  of  the  other 
gods  in  rank,  is  no  doubt  the  one  most  regarded.  He  has 
not  only  large  temples  erected  solely  in  honor  of  him,  but 
every  shop  contains  a small  image  of  him  in  a little  shrine, 
before  which  incense  is  continually  burned.  Other  gods  of 
general  notoriety  might  be  mentioned,  but  the  above  may  be 
considered  as  the  most  noted,  and  most  extensively  worship- 
ed. The  histories  of  the  gods  great  and  small  which  are 
made  up  of  frivolous  and  often  incredible  statements,  would 
fill  volumes.  A condensed  account  of  one  of  these  histories 
may  be  of  interest,  as  a specimen  of  the  whole. 

The  popular  story  respecting  Tsai-shin  JPu-sah — “ The  God 
of  Wealth,”  is  as  follows:  He  was  originally  a tax-gatherer, 
and  once  called  upon  a family  who  professed  their  inability 
to  pay  their  tax,  and  determined  to  stay  with  them  till  he  ob- 
tained it.  Before  retiring  to  rest,  he  was  surprised  to  hear 

G 


146 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


under  his  window  the  following  address  of  an  old  hen  to  her 
young  brood : “ My  master  has  a guest  in  his  house,  and  has 
determined  to  kill  me  to-morrow  to  furnish  his  table.  What 
will  become  of  you,  my  dear  little  nestlings,  weak  in  body,  and 
inexperienced  in  the  ways  of  the  world?  I must  certainly 
give  you  my  parting  advice,  as  you  Avill  soon  be  left  without 
any  one  to  watch  over  you.  Above,  you  must  be  careful  that 
the  hawk  does  not  pounce  upon  you ; below,  that  men  do  not 
tread  upon  you.  You  must  not  eat  too  much — you  thus  will 
avoid  disease  ; born  in  the  same  nest,  you  must  not  quarrel.” 

The  tax-gatherer,  struck  with  this  address,  discoursed  to 
himself  upon  it  thus  : “ If  a short-lived  and  insignificant  fowl 
exhibits  so  much  understanding,  and  makes  such  plans  for  the 
future,  what  is  the  dignity  of  man,  and  how  should  he  pro- 
vide for  his  future  wants  ?”  Influenced  by  such  thoughts,  he 
determined  immediately  to  renounce  the  world,  and  set  out  at 
once  to  find  a place  of  retirement,  in  order  to  lead  the  life  of 
a recluse  and  cultivate  virtue.  With  this  resolution  he  pro- 
ceeded on  his  way,  and  was  met  by  a tiger,  but  so  far  from 
being  terrified,  he  rushed  forward,  laid  his  hand  upon  his 
mane,  leaped  upon  his  back,  and  rode  him  away  to  his  retreat. 
After  attaining  to  the  perfection  of  virtue  he  became  a god. 
Such  is  the  common  popular  tradition  respecting  the  god 
most  worshiped  in  China. 

The  less  noted  gods,  which  have  only  a local  fame,  are  al- 
most innumerable.  They  are  officers  who,  by  their  impartial 
administration  of  j ustice  and  by  acts  of  benevolence,  have  en- 
deared themselves  to  the  hearts  of  the  people,  or  private  citi- 
zens who  are  revered  on  account  of  their  virtues.  Some  are 
known  in  but  one  place,  and  worshiped  in  but  one  temple ; 
others  ai’e  known  and  worshiped  in  several  temples  in  the 
same  vicinity.  Some,  though  their  fame  may  be  confined 
to  one  place,  receive  there  honors  hardly  second  to  those 
of  any  other  god.  Every  section  and  country  has  its  local 
god  and  local  temple,  with  which  the  people  of  each  place  are 
identified,  and  in  which  they  feel  a peculiar  interest.  These 


TEMPLES  USED  FOR  PUBLIC  GATHERINGS.  147 


temples  furnish  places  for  the  inhabitants  of  each  neighbor- 
hood to  meet  for  deliberation  and  consultation  on  topics  of 
general  interest. 

In  cities  men  of  each  class  or  occupation  have  their  own 
peculiar  deities,  to  which,  in  addition  to  the  gods  which  they 
worship  in  common  with  the  people  generally,  they  pay  espe- 
cial homage.  Scholars  worship  the  God  of  Letters ; business 
men  the  God  of  Wealth ; dealers  in  medicine  the  god  who  dis- 
covered medicines ; carpenters  the  god  who  invented  the 
measuring  rule ; sailors  the  goddess  of  the  seas,  lakes,  and 
rivers  over  which  they  pass,  and  so  on  indefinitely.  The 
temples  of  the  patrons  of  different  arts  and  employments  are 
also  used  as  resorts  for  general  consultation  by  the  craftsmen 
to.  whom  they  severally  belong. 

Sometimes  the  people,  impatient  to  show  their  gratitude  to 
their  benefactors,  erect  temples  to  them  while  living.  Two 
large  buildings  of  this  class  in  Ningpo  were  erected  to  officers 
who  succeeded  in  draining  unhealthy  parts  of  the  city. 


148 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

MUTUAL  RELATIONS  AND  INFLUENCES  OF  THE  RELIGIOUS 
SYSTEMS  OF  CHINA. 

Partial  and  imperfect  Character  of  the  Knowledge  derived  from  Natural  Re- 
ligion.— Moral  more  clearly  apprehended  than  Religious  or  Spiritual 
Truth. — Buddhism  andTauism  attempt  to  supply  the  Defects  of  Confu- 
cianism.— Special  Characteristics  and  Relations  of  these  Systems. — Re- 
ligious Views  of  the  People  vague  and  chaotic. — The  three  Systems  gen- 
erally regarded  as  Supplementary  to  each  other. — A proximate  Estimate 
of  the  Number  of  Idol  Temples  in  China. — Description  of  different  kinds 
of  Sacrifices  and  Offerings. — The  Doctrines  andPractices  of  Idolatry  per- 
versions of  great  Truths. — Answer  to  the  question,  “Have  the  Chinese 
any  Idea  of  one  Supreme  Deity  ?”■ — General  Character  of  Chinese  Idola- 
try as  compared  with  that  of  other  Countries. — Evidences  of  Discontent 
with  Idolatry. — Encouraging  Facts,  and  the  Duty  of  the  Church. 

The  history  of  religious  opinions  in  China  illustrates  at  once 
the  glory  and  the  shame  of  our  fallen  nature.  We  see  evi- 
denced in  the  very  earliest  period  of  Chinese  history  a desire 
to  search  out  the  principles  of  absolute  and  eternal  truth,  and 
an  ability  to  a certain  extent  to  do  so.  The  main  doctrines  of 
the  Confucian  ethics  are  identical  with  those  which  have  orig- 
inated in  other  countries,  and  which  we  find  in  the  Christian 
revelation.  These  doctrines  are  recognized  and  received  by 
the  people  as  necessary  and  self-evident  truths  of  supreme  au- 
thority. They  are  the  revelation  of  God’s  will,  and  of  his  char- 
acter in  our  common  nature. 

For  some  reason,  however,  the  sphere  of  truth  illuminated 
by  the  light  of  nature  is  partial  and  incomplete.  Only  the 
duties  of  man  to  man,  in  the  relations  of  the  present  life,  are 
clearly  brought  to  view.  The  character  of  God,  our  relations 
to  him,  the  nature  of  the  soul,  and  our  future  destiny  are  sub- 


MUTUAL  RELATIONS  OF  CHINESE  RELIGIONS.  149 

jects  which  the  Chinese  seem  to  have  very  imperfectly  appre-  • 
hended,  or  been  entirely  ignorant  of. 

This  may  have  been  because  these  subjects  are  more  mys- 
terious in  their  very  nature ; or  because  man,  from  his  aversion 
to  God,  shuts  his  eyes  to  the  truth,  and  will  not  see  when  he 
might ; or  because  of  judicial  blindness,  inflicted  on  account  of 
disobedience  and  idolatry.  It  may  be  that  the  moral  wreck  of 
the  fall  would  have  been  greater  had  not  God  in  mercy,  by  a 
special  intervention,  abated  the  natural  results  of  it  so  far  as 
to  leave  enough  of  truth  and  enough  of  moral  principle  and 
impulses  to  form  the  basis  of  society  and  government,  render- 
ing man’s  condition  in  the  world  comparatively  tolerable  and 
happy. 

However  this  may  be,  the  fact  is  that  more  than  3000  years 
• ago  the  Chinese  Avere  possessed  of  a great  deal  of  moral  truth, 

and  a very  little  religious  ; and  that  from  that  time  to  this 
they  have  made  no  advance,  but  have  rather  been  going  back- 
Avard. 

But  though  Confucianism  gives  to  the  Chinese  no  religion, 
and  discourages  inquiries  with  reference  to  gods  and  things 
mysterious,  as  unnecessary  and  useless,  still  the  religious  in- 
stinct is  so  strong,  and  the  desire  to  have  objects  of  religious 
worship  so  imperative,  that  the  people  Avould  have  some  relig- 
ion, true  or  false.  Buddhism  came  in  to  satisfy  the  religious 
Avant  which  Confucianism  left  unsupplied. 

But  Buddhism,  Avhile  it  treats  largely  of  a future  world  and 
preparation  for  it,  is  very  meagre  in  its  teachings  Avith  ref- 
• erence  to  the  present.  The  gods  of  Buddhism  inhabited  an 
id§al  world  or  presided  over  the  regions  of  Hades,  and  its  vota- 
ries Avere  directed  to  seek  seclusion  from  the  Avorld  and  society. 
Tauism  has  held  its  influence  over  the  people,  because  it  ap- 
peals to  instincts  and  Avants  which  Buddhism  has  neglected  or 
ignored.  It  has  filled  the  earth  and  sea  and  skies  with  deities ; 
endeavored  to  unravel  the  mysteries  of  nature ; and  furnished 
gods  Avho  cared  for  the  Avants  of  man’s  present  state. 

These  tAVO  systems  have  their  elements  of  attraction  and 


150 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


repulsion.  While  they  recommended  themselves  to  the  Chinese 
on  account  of  their  supplying  some  religious  wants,  they  were 
repugnant  and  unsatisfactory  on  account  of  their  extravagant 
pretensions  and  want  of  evidence,  and  because  they  were  an- 
tagonistic to  the  spirit  and  teachings  of  Confucianism.  They 
were  alternately  persecuted  and  fostered,  proscribed  and  pat- 
ronized by  different  Chinese  emperors.  By  degrees  they  im- 
pressed themselves  upon  the  Chinese  mind,  and  their  ideas  be- 
came incorporated  with  the  language,  literature,  and  social  cus- 
toms of  the  country.  They  are  now  neither  persecuted  nor 
fostered,  but  tolerated,  as  an  integral  and  necessary  part  of 
the  institutions  of  the  country. 

In  the  mean  time,  not  only  the  people  but  the  government 
of  China  was  gradually  influenced  by  these  systems,  and  sanc- 
tioned many  of  their  ideas  and  ceremonies,  and  adopted  them 
in  its  State  ritual.  Those  forms  of  religious  worship  growing 
out  of  Buddhism  and  Tauism,  and  either  directly  or  by  impli- 
cation sanctioned  by  the  government,  I have  associated  with 
the  ancient  forms  of  worship  practiced  before  the  time  of 
Confucius,  under  the  general  term  National  Worship,  which 
embraces  a variety  of  religious  observances,  originating  in  dif- 
ferent periods,  and  of  entirely  different  characters.  As  re- 
gards origin,  they  are  not  more  national  than  Tauism,  and,  as 
regards  general  prevalence,  hardly  more  so  than  either  Bud- 
dhism or  Tauism.  I have  called  them  national,  because  they 
are  regarded  by  intelligent  natives  as  more  in  harmony  with 
the  genius  of  the  Chinese  government,  and  receive  an  open 
and  decided  sanction  and  acknowledgment  from  the  govern- 
ment which  Buddhism  and  Tauism  do  not. 

In  their  original  and  fundamental  characteristics,  Confu- 
cianism is  moral,  Buddhism  metaphysical,  and  Tauism  ma- 
terialistic.* While  the  first  of  these  systems  has  retained  its 
original  character  the  other  two  have  been  popularized,  re- 
taining, however,  the  original  idea  in  a modified  form.  They 

* See  Edkins’s  “Religious  Condition  of  the  Chinese.” 


RELIGIOUS  VIEWS  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 


151 


have  conformed  to  the  tastes  and  requirements  of  the  people, 
or,  rather,  been  modified  by  priests,  so  as  better  to  please  the 
people  and  attract  them  to  the  temples.  At  present,  Con- 
fucianism may  still  be  designated  as  a system  of  morality,  the 
National  Worship  as  formalism,  Buddhism  as  religious  fa- 
naticism, and  Tauism  as  superstition.  The  National  Worship 
is  nearly  allied  to  Tauism,  as  both  relate  principally  to  this 
life  rather  than  the  life  to  come. 

While  these  different  religions  or  forms  of  worship  are 
adapted  to  different  classes,  and  to  the  tastes  and  religious  pro- 
clivities of  different  individuals,  they  have  not  divided  the 
Chinese  into  sects,  and  few  of  the  people  adopt  any  system 
exclusively.  The  religious  notions  of  the  masses  are  vague 
and  chaotic.  By  a strange  perversity  of  intellect,  they  have  a 
kind  of  belief  in  all  these  systems,  though  diverse  and  incon- 
sistent, while  they  can  hardly  be  said  to  believe  truly  in  any 
of  them.  Most  of  their  worship  is  a matter  of  custom,  rather 
than  of  serious  conviction.  They  feel  that  they  must  worship 
something,  and,  to  satisfy  their  consciences  and  avoid  being 
singular,  they  pay  their  homage  to  the  only  objects  of  relig- 
ious worship  with  which  they  are  acquainted.  Confused  with 
the  multiplicity  of  gods,  some  try  to  worship  them  all,  for 
fear  that  the  true  one,  or  rather  the  most  important  one,  may 
be  neglected. 

A few  of  the  priests  and  a few  among  the  people  are  sin- 
cere and  earnest  in  their  devotions  at  idol  shrines,  and  seem 
to  make  religion  the  great  end  and  aim  of  their  lives.  While 
the  general  government  formally  and  ostensibly  denounces  the 
. popular  idolatry,  as  it  is  the  stereotyped  custom  to  do,  the 
Emperor  and  officials  of  every  rank  contribute  immense  sums 
of  money  to  build,  repair,  or  beautify  the  temples.  Officers, 
after  attending  to  the  formal  and  heartless  rites  of  the  State 
religion,  worship  with  the  common  people  in  Buddhist  or 
Tauist  temples,  or  both. 

Literary  men  are  generally  atheists  or  pantheists.  Still  they 
will  say  that  it  is  very  desirable  for  the  common  peojfie,  and 


152 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


women  whose  moral  perceptions  are  obtuse,  and  who  can  not 
think,  to  have  idols  set  before  them  to  awe  and  restrain  them ; 
and  out  of  regard  to  the  general  custom,  or  from  force  of 
habit,  they  will  perhaps  worship  with  them. 

A few  literary  men,  however,  are  earnest  and  outspoken  in 
their  opposition  to  idolatry  in  every  form.  I saw  a masterly 
tract  written  by  a man  of  this  class,  denouncing  idolatry  as 
essentially  corrupt  and  debasing,  inconsistent  with  reason  and 
with  the  teachings  of  Confucius,  and  the  fruitful  source  of 
moral,  social,  and  political  evil  in  every  age.  We  can  not 
help  sympathizing  with  such  reformers,  but  alas,  they  can 
only  hand  over  their  readers  to  the  morality  of  Confucianism, 
which  they  represent  as  all-sufficient;  it  is  all  they  have  to 
offer.  These  representations  and  appeals,  however  forcible, 
have  but  little  effect. 

It  is  very  common  to  represent  these  three  systems  as  sup- 
plementary to  each  other,  forming  together  one  complete  re- 
ligion. There  is  now  perfect  toleration  of  them  all  on  the 
part  of  Government. 

The  only  forms  of  worship  which  are  universally  adopted 
are  Ancestral  Worshij},  the  worship  of  the  Kitchen  God,  and 
the  worship  of  Heaven  and  Earth  at  the  beginning  of  the  year. 

With  respect  to  the  full  extent  of  idolatry,  and  the  number 
of  temples  in  the  empire,  there  are  no  data  for  forming  an  ac- 
curate estimate.  Though  the  numbers  of  the  different  kinds 
of  temples  are  'given  in  the  several  histories  of  the  provinces, 
departments,  and  districts  respectively,  these  estimates  fall  far 
short  of  the  real  number  of  temples  which  are  known  to  exist, 
as  these  histories  present  only  the  more  noted  ones,  and  many 
have  been  built  since  they  were  compiled.  An  approximation 
to  the  real  number  may  be  made  by  taking  the  temples  of  any 
one  place  as  a standard  of  comparison.  With  the  help  of  an 
intelligent  native,  I endeavored  to  make  such  an  approxima- 
tion when  in  Ningpo.  The  temples  within  the  walls  of  that 
city  erected  for  the  worship  of  deified  heroes  alone  number 
more  than  eighty.  Those  of  the  same  kind  in  the  eastern  part 


PROXIMATE  NUMBER  OF  TEMPLES. 


158 


of  the  district  are  known  to  exceed  one  hundred.  Reckoning 
the  northern,  southern,  and  western  temples  at  only  one  hun- 
dred more,  we  have  about  three  hundred  temples  of  this  one 
kind  for  the  whole  district,  which  is  regarded  by  those  famil- 
iar with  it  as  a low  estimate.  If  we  assign  the  same  number 
to  each  of  the  six  districts  of  this  department,  we  have  for  the 
whole  eighteen  hundred.  By  the  same  ratio  of  computation, 
the  eleven  departments  of  this  province  would  contain  nineteen 
thousand  eight  hundred,  and  the  empire,  reckoning  only  fifteen 
out  of  the  eighteen  provinces,  would  contain,  in  round  num- 
bers, three  hundred  thousand.  The  whole  number  of  idols  in 
these  temples  for  hero  worship,  reckoning  ten  to  each,  would 
be  three  millions.  The  number  of  different  and  distinct  idols, 
reckoning  one  to  ten  temples,  would  be  about  thirty  thousand. 

This  estimate  only  includes  the  Mi au,  or  temples  discon- 
nected from  Buddhism  and  Tauism,  devoted  to  the  partic- 
ular kind  of  worship  which  I have  specified.  The  Sz-yun 
and  Tao  Jacan,  temples  of  Buddhism  and  Tauism,  respective- 
ly, together,  are  about  as  numerous  as  the  Miau.  The  Ts-tang, 
or  ancestral  temples,  are  much  more  numerous  than  the  Miau. 
Accordingly,  three  times  the  number  of  the  Miau  will  prob- 
ably not  be  far  from  giving  the  whole  number  of  different 
temples  in  China,  which  may  be  regarded,  in  round  numbers, 
one  million.  These  temples  cost  from  five  hundred  to  one 
hundred  thousand  dollars  each.  Regarding  the  average  as 
only  one  thousand,  we  have  1,000,000,000  of  dollars  as  the  ap- 
proximate value  of  idol  temples  in  China,  which  is,  I think,  al- 
together too  low  an  estimate.  To  give  an  idea  of  the  entire 
expense  of  idolatry,  we  must  add  to  the  money  spent  in  the 
erection  of  these  buildings  that  required  for  repairs,  and  the 
still  greater  amount  consumed  by  the  idolatrous  ceremonies 
performed  in  the  temples  and  at  the  private  dwellings  of  the 
people. 

The  want  and  misery  which  are  the  natural  result  of  such 
an  enormous  waste  of  treasure  may  be  regarded  as  part  of  the 
punishment  of  idolatry.  But  we  know  that  God  punishes  this 

G 2 


154 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


sin,  so  prominently  portrayed  and  denounced  in  the  fore-front 
of  the  Decalogue,  with  spiritual  and  eternal,  as  well  as  tem- 
poral judgments ; and  fearful  indeed  will  be  the  doom  of  this 
nation  if  God  should  visit  it  according  to  the  number  of  its 
idols. 

At  the  risk  of  being  tedious,  it  may  be  well  to  give  here  a 
general  account  o^the  sacrifices  and  offerings  connected  with 
different  kinds  of  worship.  At  present  none  of  these  sacri- 
fices are  expiatory;  they  are  regarded  as  food  for  gods  and 
spirits,  and  are  presented  with  the  view  of  securing  the  kind 
offices  of  good  divinities,  and  buying  exemption  from  the  in- 
flictions of  evil  ones.  They  are  not  burned,  but  offered  as 
food.  Offerings  in  Buddhist  temples  consist  of  cooked  vege- 
tables, as  it  is  contrary  to  the  tenets  of  Buddhism  to  take  ani- 
mal life.  Offerings  to  other  gods  are  of  meat  almost  exclu- 
sively, of  which  there  are  generally  three  or  five  different  kinds. 
This  meat  is  presented  on  large  plates,  containing  whole  fowls 
or  fish,  or  large  pieces  of  pork.  It  is  generally  cooked,  but 
on  some  occasions  most  of  it  is  presented  raw,  with  a few 
cooked  dishes,  this  kind  of  sacrifice  being  regarded  as  of  a 
higher  and  more  reverential  kind.  Salt  and  wine  are  added 
in  separate  cups. 

The  occasions  on  which  offerings  are  made  are  such  as  be- 
trothal and  wedding  days,  the  birth  of  a child,  or  the  birthday 
of  a parent.  Sometimes  they  are  made  in  consequence  of 
former  vows  in  times  of  distress,  and  sometimes  with  a view 
to  securing  the  reformation  of  a dissipated  son  or  relative. 

In  every  instance,  a paper  engraving  of  the  principal  god 
to  be  worshiped  is  bought  at  a shop  where  such  articles  are 
kept,  and  placed  above  the  table  of  offerings.  The  spirit  is 
supposed  to  be  present  in  this  paper.  On  some  occasions,  and 
particularly  during  the  ceremonies  of  the  New  Year,  sacrifices 
are  made  before  a paper  representing  all  the  gods.  Candles 
and  incense-sticks  are  kept  constantly  burning  on  the  table  of 
offerings,  and  in  closing  the  ceremony  the  paper  representing 
the  god  or  gods  worshiped  is  burned,  together  with  paper- 


SACRIFICES  AND  OFFERINGS. 


155 


money.  An  explosion  of  fire-crackers  is  generally  tlie  signal 
for  the  spirits  to  disperse  after  the  repast  is  over ; a few 
crumbs  of  meat  and  vegetables  are  also  thrown  upon  the  roof 
of  the  house,  though  no  one  knows  why,  except  that  it  is  the 
invariable  custom.  Some  surmise  that  it  is  for  a certain  god 
who  has  no  temple  to  dwell  in,  and  spends  much  of  his  time 
on  housetops ; some  that  it  is  for  the  attendants  of  the  spirits 
which  have  been  worshiped ; and  some  that  it  is  simply  an 
offering  for  the  birds. 

The  sacrifices  which  occur  most  frequently  are  those  which 
are  offered  to  the  shades  of  ancestors  and  evil  spirits.  They 
are  called  kung-fan,  “hash  and  rice,”  to  distinguish  them  from 
offerings  made  to  gods,  which  are  called  fuh-li — “happi- 
ness offerings.”  They  consist  not  of  large  pieces  of  meat,  but 
of  dishes  of  chopped  meat  and  vegetables,  together  with  bowls 
of  rice,  the  whole  being  prepared  and  presented  in  the  same 
manner  as  a feast  for  man.  The  fuh-li  offered  to  gods  is 
often  cut  up  and  cooked  over  for  such  feasts;  but  the  in- 
verted order  of  presenting  before  the  gods  what  has  once 
been  offered  to  spirits  is  never  practiced. 

Among  the  most  common,  and  perhaps  the  most  earnest 
of  all  sacrifices,  are  those  which  are  made  to  evil  spirits  in 
consequence  of  the  sickness  of  a relative.  The  diviner  informs 
the  afflicted  family  what  particular  spirit  has  been  offended, 
and  gives  a minute  list  of  the  offerings  required.  These  offer- 
ings are  presented  in  the  night,  on  the  ground,  outside  the 
door  of  the  dwelling.  They  consist  not  only  of  food  of  a 
greater  or  less  amount,  together  with  candles  and  incense  and 
paper-money,  but  a paper  sedan  or  a paper  boat  is  burned 
with  the  money,  in  order  to  provide  a polite  mode  of  convey- 
ance for  the  spirit  on  taking  his  leave. 

The  paper-money  is  made  of  paper  covered  on  one  side  by 
what  very  much  resembles  tin-foil.  It  is  manufactured  in 
large  quantities  for  idolatrous  purposes,  and  is  used  through- 
out the  empire.  A superior  kind  of  it  is  made  up  in  hollow 
squares  two  or  three  inches  long,  which  are  united  by  a string, 


156 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


and  hung  up  everywhere  in  shops  for  sale.  This  kind  of 
paper  is  called  yuen-pao,  that  which  is  of  first  or  greatest 
value.  It  represents  large  ingots  of  silver,  and  is  used  prin- 
cipally in  sacrificing  to  the  gods.  An  inferior  kind  of  this 
paper  and  foil  is  bought  in  sheets  about  eight  inches  square, 
and  made  up  in  a rough  form  by  women,  whose  lips  continu- 
ally chant  the  words  O mi  tafuh,  while  their  fingers  are  busjf 
with  The  paper.  This  is  called  sih-poh,  silver-sheet,  and  repre- 
sents small  pieces  of  silver.  It  is  used  in  offerings  to  ances- 
tors and  spirits  during  the  seventh  and  eighth  months.  When 
offerings  are  made  to  hungry  ghosts,  an  immense  pile  of  this 
paper-money  may  sometimes  be  seen  burned  at  one  temple. 
Since  the  introduction  of  silver  dollars  from  the  West,  repre- 
sentations of  dollars  in  paper  have  been  used  in  the  same  man- 
ner. Pieces  of  wheat  stalks,  after  chants  have  been  repeated 
over  them,  are  also  presented  and  burned  in  some  places,  to 
represent  bars  of  gold.  It  is  believed  that  the  gods  or  spirits, 
for  whose  benefit  these  articles  are  burned,  receive  for  them 
real  gold  and  silver  in  the  spirit  world. 

On  funeral  occasions,  in  addition  to  the  money  for  the  use 
of  the  departed  spirit,  representations  in  paper  of  male  and 
female  attendants  are  burned,  and  also  paper  sedans,  horses, 
wagons,  etc.  In  case  of  the  death  of  opium-smokers,  a paper 
opium  pipe  and  lamp,  etc.,  are  burned,  for  fear  of  adding  to 
the  torments,  or  increasing  the  displeasure  of  the  deceased,  by 
neglecting  to  make  these  provisions. 

The  expense  of  these  idolatrous  sacrifices  would  be  almost 
intolerable,  were  it  not  that  the  food  offered  supplies  also  the 
necessary  wants  of  the  family.  Indeed,  about  as  much  is  offer- 
ed to  the  gods  on  any  occasion  as  will  suffice  for  feasting  the 
guests  during  the  festivities  of  that  occasion.  Another  cause 
w'hich  helps  to  uphold  this  system  of  superstition  is  the  Bud- 
dhistic notion  respecting  the  sin  of  taking  animal  life,  which 
is  excused  by  the  ostensible  object  of  offering  the  animals 
slain  to  the  gods. 

It  is  evident  that  the  people  have  a secret  persuasion  of  the 


PERVERTED  TRUTHS  SEEN  ift  IDOLATROUS  ERRORS.  157 

emptiness  of  these  practices,  while  they  at  the  same  time  so 
tenaciously  adhere  to  them.  In  Ningpo  they  sometimes  ridi- 
cule themselves  for  performing  these  ceremonies  by  repeating 
the  couplet,  Pa  pa  lang  zi  hao  gang — “ Spread  it  out  till  it  is 
cold,  and  then  stuff  yourselves  with  it.”  Notwithstanding  the 
evident  absurdity  of  these  debasing  practices,  all  classes  and 
conditions  of  men  engage  alike  in  them,  and  determining  the 
matter  of  duty  with  reference  to  eating  meats  offered  to  idols 
is  often  a serious  difficulty  with  the  native  converts. 

The  different  forms  of  idolatrous  worship  described  in  the 
preceding  chapters  have  been  received  and  trusted  in,  because 
the  ideas  or  doctrines  which  underlie  them  are  perversions  of 
great  truths.  W e have  in  the  multiplication  of  deities  of  dif- 
ferent kinds,  and  presiding  over  different  places,  especially  in 
the  Tu-ti  Poo-sah,  a corruption  of  the  great  doctrine  of  the 
omnipresence  and  universal  providence  of  God.  The  worship 
of  the  household  deity,  generally  called  God  of  the  Kitchen, 
is  an  outward  expression  of  the  universal  conviction  of  the 
omniscience  of  God.  Different  gods  are  clothed  with  differ- 
ent attributes,  as  love,  mercy,  justice,  and  vengeance,  and  per- 
form different  offices,  such  as  protecting,  instructing,  and 
saving  from  temporal  and  future  evils.  The  doctrines  of  sin, 
desert  of  punishment,  a continued  state  of  existence,  rewards 
and  punishments  after  death,  and  the  necessity  of  repentance, 
reform,  and  propitiation,  are  most  prominent.  The  worship 
of  ancestors  is  a perversion  o?  one  of  the  highest  duties  and 
noblest  instincts  of  our  nature.  These  forms  of  idolatry, 
while  they  evidence  God’s  revelation  of  himself  in  the  human 
soul,  are,  with  the  most  consummate  art,  so  devised  as  to  lead 
the  soul  farther  and  farther  from  God,  and  to  turn  the  truth 
of  God  into  a lie. 

The  long  history  of  the  Chinese  race  forms  the  most  strik- 
ing illustration  of  the  statement  that  “the  world  by  wisdom 
knew  not  God,”  and  that  the  tendency  of  human  nature  is  in- 
evitably and  universally  toward  idolatry.  This  tendency  is 
strikingly  described  in  the  words  of  inspiration — “ Because 


158 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE, 


that,  when  they  knew  God,  they  glorified  him  not  as  God, 
neither  were  thankful,  but  became  vain  in  their  imaginations, 
and  their  foolish  heart  was  darkened.  Professing  themselves 
to  be  wise,  they  became  fools,  and  changed  the  glory  of  the 
incorruptible  God  into  an  image  made  like  to  corruptible  man, 
and  to  birds,  and  four-footed  beasts,  and  creeping  things. 
Who  changed  the  truth  of  God  into  a lie,  and  worshiped  and 
served  the  creature  more  than  the  Creator,  who  is  blessed  for- 
mer. Amen.” 

Strange  as  it  seems  to  have  before  us  in  this  nineteenth 
century  a whole  nation  of  idolaters,  it  is  really  almost  a great- 
er wonder  that  we  are  not  idolaters  ourselves,  and  we  may 
thank  God  who  has  made  us  to  differ. 

It  is  an  interesting  inquiry  whether  any  trace  is  left  in 
China  of  the  knowledge  or  idea  of  one  supreme  overruling 
deity.  If  we  examine  the  language  and  literature  of  this  peo- 
ple, and  interrogate  native  scholars  and  dictionaries,  we  will 
not  find  a word  in  the  language  which,  according  to  present 
usage,  conveys  that  idea ; and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  find 
it  at  all  Well  defined  in  the  minds  of  any  of  the  people.  Still 
this  conception,  covered  up  and  almost  hidden  by  the  superin- 
cumbent mass  of  idolatry  and  superstition,  may  be  detected 
more  or  less  clearly,  particularly  in  the  minds  of  the  common 
people.  It  is  generally  associated  with  the  term  heaven. 
This  word  in  the  Chinese  classics  evidently  has  a meaning 
nearly  akin  to  that  of  God,  as  in  the  saying  of  Confucius, 
“ Life  and  death  are  determined ; riches  and  poverty  are  from 
heaven.”  Scholars  in  their  wisdom  have  given  these  and  simi- 
lar passages  a pantheistic  sense,  explaining  heaven  to  mean  an 
all-pervading  principle.  I am  satisfied,  however,  that  the  true 
idea  is  still  retained,  though  it  is  difficult  to  find  a clear  ex- 
pression of  it.  The  following  phrases  are  often  used : “ Tien 
yin  kin — “ The  eye  of  Heaven  is  near also  Teo  shang  san 
tseh  yiu  shen — “ Just  over  our  heads  are  deities,”  or  “ is  God,” 
the  word  “ shen  ” being  either  singular  or  plural. 

Notwithstanding  the  worship  of  heaven  is  reserved  for  the 


HAVE  THEY  ANY  TRUE  IDEA  OF  GOD?  159 

Chinese  Emperor,  who,  as  the  “ Son  of  Heaven,”  is  regarded 
as  the  only  person  of  sufficient  dignity  to  perform  this  service, 
the  adoration  of  heaven  by  the  people  is  by  no  means  uncom- 
mon. Persons  in  the  habit  of  practicing  it  sometimes  have  a 
little  incense-vase  fastened  to  the  outside  of  their  doors.  In 
this  they  place  a lighted  incense-stick,  and  then,  with  uplifted 
eyes  and  hands,  they  stand  and  worship.-  This  seems  to  be 
regarded  as  a higher  and  more  spiritual  homage  than  that 
which  is  offered  to  idols  in  temples,  and  is  practiced  some- 
times ostentatiously,  reminding  one  of  the  praying  of  the 
Pharisees  in  the  corners  of  the  streets.  If  you  ask  the  wor- 
shiper what  he  is  doing,  he  will  say  “ I am  worshiping  heav- 
en.” If  interrogated  more  particularly  as  to  the  real  object 
of  worship,  he  will  probably  repeat,  in  nearly  the  same  lan- 
guage, “ Oh,  it  is  the  great  heaven  above  me.”  If  pushed 
still  further,  and  asked  whether  he  means  the  vast  expanse 
above,  or  the  clouds,  or  the  heavenly  bodies,  he  will  answer 
“ No;”  and,  forced  to  give  some  explanation,  he  will  probably 
fall  into  the  misguiding  formulas  which  the  wisdom  of  the 
world  has  provided  for  him,  and  say,  “ Heaven  is  our  father 
and  earth  is  our  mother ; and  heaven  and  earth  produce  all 
^things;  and  so  I worship  heaven  and  earth.”  Beyond  this 
the  deluded  votaries  of  idolatry  are  unable  to  go.  If  we 
speak  to  them  of  the  God  of  heaven,  his  attributes  and  his 
works,  and  our  relations  to  him,  they  are  deeply  impressed, 
but  the  glory  of  the  uncreated  God  seems  too  bright  and  daz- 
zling for  eyes  long  accustomed  to  the  darkness  of  heathenism, 
and  they  close  them  again,  and  relapse  to  the  wonted  current 
of  their  idolatrous  thoughts. 

Another  evidence  that  the  people  have  some  faint  glimmer- 
ings of  the  idea  of  the  true  God  in  connection  with  the  wor- 
ship which  has  been  described  is  found  in  the  fact  that,  after 
listening  to  and  gaining  a little  knowledge  of  the  Gospel  as 
preached  by  missionaries,  they  are  very  apt  to  express  their 
assent  and  approbation,  declaring  that  it  is  identical  with  the 
worship  of  heaven  and  earth. 


160 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


This  half-smothered  and  dormant  instinct  is  stimulated  to 
greater  activity,  and  finds  a clearer  expression  in  times  of  spe- 
cial emergency  and  trial.  The  insufficiency  of  idolatry  is 
never  so  keenly  felt  as  when  the  soul  is  overwhelmed  with  af' 
diction.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  individuals  who  have  lost 
their  property,  or  who  are  afflicted  with  disobedient  and  vi- 
cious children,  or  who,  in  cases  of  oppression,  have  failed  to 
obtain  justice  and  redress  from  their  officers  and  the  worship 
of  different  gods,  in  the  bitterness  of  their  spirits  to  turn  from 
the  worship  of  idols,  perhaps  even  curse  their  gods,  and  cry 
earnestly  to  heaven  for  help.  Hence  the  common  adage 
Kill  tseh  ku  tien — “In  your  extremity  you  cry  to  heaven.” 
It  is  as  strange  as  it  is  sad,  that  these  innate  promptings  and 
testimonies  for  God  have  been  so  repressed  and  chained 
down  by  prevailing  errors,  that  they  have  never  found  a clear 
expression,  or  been  construed  into  a consistent  religious  sys- 
tem. 

Dark  as  the  picture  which  has  been  given  of  Chinese  idol- 
atry is,  it  is  not  without  gleams  of  light  and  hope.  The  very 
character  of  the  idolatry  itself  contrasts  favorably  with  that 
of  almost  any  other  nation  of  history.  There  is  in  China  no 
deification  of  vice  as  in  the  systems  of  idolatry  of  Greece  and 
Rome ; no  lascivious  rites  such  as  are  practiced  at  present  in 
India ; and  there  are  very  few  of  those  hideous  and  rejmlsive 
images  which  are  met  with  in  most  heathen  nations.  It  is  a 
fact  well  worthy  of  notice  also  that  the  temples  of  China  con- 
tain no  nude  images  or  figures  except  that  of  the  infant  held 
in  the  arms  of  the  Goddess  of  Mercy. 

Evidences  have  not  been  wanting  in  every  age  of  the  histo- 
ry of  China  that  the  people  have  not  been  satisfied  with  idol 
worship.  New  sects  have  sprung  up  in  different  parts  of  the 
empire,  some  of  them  formally  renouncing  idolatry.  They 
have  been,  however,  like  the  blind  leading  the  blind.  Unable 
to  devise  any  thing  better  than  Buddhism  and  Tauism,  they 
have  acknowledged  the  power  and  influence  of  these  systems 
by  recurring  to  their  old  ideas,  and  adopting  them  in  grosser 


THE  PEOPLE  NOT  SATISFIED  WITH  IDOL  ATE  Y.  161 

forms.  These  sects  have  died  out,  or  been  absorbed  by  the 
prevailing  religions,  or  been  proscribed  and  exterminated  by 
imperial  authority  as  corrupt  and  demoralizing,  and  dangerous 
to  the  State.  So  powerless  is  poor  human  nature  to  extricate 
itself  from  the  ruin  into  which  it  has  voluntarily  plunged. 
Nothing  can  accomplish  this  work  but  the  Gospel  of  Christ. 


162 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

SUPERSTITIOUS  NOTIONS  RESPECTING  SPIRITS,  AND  THE  SCI- 
ENCE OF  FUNG-SHWUY,  OR  GEOMANCY. 

Sources  of  Superstitions  relating  to  Spirits. — Character  and  Operations  of 
Spirits  called  Yau-lcwei. — Notions  Respecting  the  Disembodied  Spirits 
of  Men. — Familiar  Spirits,  and  Communications  with  the  Spirit  World 
through  a Medium. — Written  Communications  from  Spirits,  Spirit-rap- 
pings, etc. — Character,  Importance,  and  Uses  of  the  mysterious  Science 
called  Fung-shwuy. — It  has  its  own  Literature,  and  its  Doctors,  or  Ex- 
pounders.— General  Prevalence  and  Influence  of  this  Superstition. — 
Difficulties  and  Family  Quarrels  growing  out  of  it. — An  Incident  illus- 
trating the  Existence  and  Importance  of  Fung-shwuy. — Fung-shwuy,  as 
applied  to  House-building. — Rearrangement  of  Houses  sometimes 
made  necessary. — Complaints  against  Foreigners  for  disregarding  Fung- 
shwuy,  and  a Case  in  Illustration. — Means  of  attracting  Good  Luck. — 
Means  of  warding  off  Evil  Influences. — Fung-shwuy  as  connected  with 
the  Construction  of  Canals  and  Bridges. 

Ideas  respecting  spirits  occupy  a prominent  place  among 
Chinese  superstitions,  and  have  an  important  practical  bearing 
upon  domestic  and  social  life.  The  unsuspecting  credulity 
with  which  the  great  variety  of  diverse  and  conflicting  views 
on  this  subj  ect  are  received,  and  the  tenacity  with  which  they 
are  held,  are  only  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  agency  of  Satan, 
the  fears  of  a guilty  and  unenlightened  conscience,  and  the 
acts  of  designing  men,  who  encourage  these  superstitions  for 
the  sake  of  accomplishing  private  ends.  Some  of  them  may 
be  traced  to  Buddhism,  some  to  Tauism,  and  some  have  origi- 
nated in  works  which  were  at  first  understood  as  principally 
or  entirely  fictitious,  but  afterward  came  to  be  regarded  as 
authentic  treatises. 

Among  the  most  prominent  of  the  orders  of  spirits  are  the 
Yau-lcwei,  or  genii,  mentioned  in  a former  chapter  on  Tauism. 


BELIEFS  RESPECTING  SPIRITS. 


163 


They  are  supposed  to  be  beings  who,  by  different  means,  have 
escaped  death,  and  exchanged  corporeal  for  ethereal  natures. 
They  exist  in  various  degrees  of  development  or  grades  of  at- 
tainment, and  it  is  their  continual  aim  and  effort  to  rise  higher 
in  the  scale  and  acquire  greater  power.  They  are  supposed 
to  be  able  to  assume  different  forms,  animate  and  inanimate, 
or  to  carry  out  their  purposes  as  invisible  spirits  to  suit  cir- 
cumstances. 

That  class  of  Yau-Jcwei  which  afflict  men  acquire  their 
power,  not  by  the  authorized  method  of  subjecting  the  body 
and  mind  to  certain  disciplinary  rules,  but  by  clandestinely 
stealing  the  vital  principle  from  man.  Nightmare  and  start- 
ing in  sleep  are  attributed  to  attempts  of  this  kind.  Dreams 
incident  to  some  states  of  bodily  ailment  tind  weakness  are 
also  attributed  to  these  spirits.  Pei'sons  thus  affected  en- 
deavor to  rid  themselves  of  their  nocturnal  visitors  in  differ- 
ent ways.  The  first  expedient  resorted  to  is  that  of  the  in- 
dividual rousing  himself  from  sleep  to  utter  curses  and  im- 
precations on  the  offending  spirit.  If  this  means  fails,  one  or 
more  persons  in  robust  health  are  called  to  occupy  the  same 
room  with  the  invalid,  as  it  is  supposed  that  an  influence  em- 
anates from  the  bodies  of  strong  and  robust  persons  which 
spirits  can  not  withstand,  and  that  they  principally  attack 
those  who  are  weak  and  delicate.  Should  the  spirit  refuse  to 
yield  to  such  means,  a sword  which  has  been  wet  with  human 
blood  is  brandished  over  the  bed  of  the  sufferer,  or  the  servi- 
ces of  a person  who  professes  to  shoot  spirits  is  obtained. 
Mirrors  are  suspended  in  different  parts  of  the  room,  in  order 
to  frighten  the  spirit,  and  to  detect  his  presence  and  position 
by  reflection,  though  he  should  endeavor  to  avoid  a direct 
view.  The  last  resort  when  all  other  means  have  failed  is 
that  of  making  a formal  complaint  at  the  office  of  Chang- 
tien-sz,  a man  who  resides  in  Kiang-si,  and  is  supposed  to 
possess  authority  over  spirits  throughout  the  empire,  and  to 
have  not  only  them,  but  gods  at  his  beck  and  call.  This 
power  he  exercises  by  means  of  charms  and  enchantments, 


164 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


and  a seal  of  acknowledged  authority  among  spirits  which 
has  been  transmitted  to  him  from  his  ancestors. 

A paper  stamped  with  this  seal,  and  containing  a statement 
of  the  name,  place,  and  circumstances  of  the  afflicted  person,  is, 
by  being  burned,  supposed  to  be  transmitted  to  some  god, 
who  is  instructed  to  see  that  the  offending  spirit  is  caught, 
punished,  and  restrained  from  committing  further  offenses. 
It  is  stated  that  these  steps  will  not  only  certainly  prove  suc- 
cessful, but  that  before  the  messenger  arrives  with  his  com- 
plaint, his  approach,  with  all  the  circumstances  of  his  mission, 
are  minutely  placarded  on  a bulletin  outside  of  the  palace  gate 
of  the  spirit  king.  It  is  also  said  that  many  spirits  of  this 
class  are  held  in  durance  by  this  personage  in  sealed  bottles, 
and  that  their  qudhilous  twitterings  are  often  heard  by  visit- 
ors. 

A singular  fact  may  be  noticed  in  this  connection,  that  a 
missionary  lady  in  Ningpo  accustomed  to  the  use  of  smelling- 
salts  fell  under  the  suspicion  of  using  the  bottle  to  confine 
spirits  over  which  she  had  gained  a controlling  power.  As 
she  was  seen  frequently  to  have  recourse  to  the  smelling-bot- 
tle in  certain  neighborhoods,  different  diseases  and  maladies 
in  those  localities  were  directly  traced  to  her  agency. 

The  largest  class  of  spirits  is  supposed  to  be  that  of  the 
spirits  of  the  dead,  called  Kwei.  As  it  is  generally  believed 
that  the  soul  is  after  death  required  to  atone  for  its  sins  by 
confinement  in  blades  until  it  is  permitted  to  reappear  in  an- 
other state,  the  Chinese  find  some  difficulty  in  accounting  for 
so  many  Kwei  upon  earth.  The  most  consistent  theory  is 
that  which  supposes  that  they  are  spirits  whose  crimes  are 
not  sufficient  to  keep  them  in  hell,  and  whose  time  for  reap- 
pearing has  not  yet  arrived.  To  the  agency  of  these  spirits 
almost  every  variety  of  disease  is  attributed.  Their  object  in 
these  inflictions  is  to  obtain  food,  or  rather  the  scent  or  ex- 
halations from  food.  Accordingly,  wThen  a person  is  sick,  a 
diviner  is  called  to  determine  whether  the  sickness  is  due  to 
the  agency  of  spirits  or  not,  and  if  it  is,  to  tell  what  kind  of 


FEEDING  HUNGRY  GHOSTS, 


165 


Kwei  it  is,  and  what  its  demands  of  food  are.  At  funerals  a 
feast  is  generally  prepared  for  the  spirits  which  are  supposed 
to  be  the  associates  of  the  deceased,  in  order  to  secure  a good 
understanding  between  him  and  his  new  acquaintances. 

During  the  months  of  August  and  September,  when  dis- 
eases are  unusually  prevalent,  the  people  suppose  that  the 
gates  of  hell  are  opened,  and  the  spirits  are  turned  out  for  a 
kind  of  holiday.  At  this  time  they  are  honored  with  cere- 
monies performed  throughout  the  country,  called  Fang-yin- 
Icau,  or  Shi-shih.  The  object  of  these  ceremonies  is  to  se- 
cure health  and  peace  to  the  family  or  neighborhood  which 
provides  them,  by  satisfying  and  propitiating  the  spirits. 
Quantities  of  viands  are  prepared,  which  are  set  on  tables  in 
an  open  place  or  court ; representations  in  paper  of  clothes  of 
different  sizes,  styles,  and  colors  are  suspended  near  the  table ; 
and  a company  of  priests  and  singers  is  employed  to  add  vari- 
ety and  noise  to  the  entertainment.  After  dark,  lanterns  are 
suspended  from  high  poles  to  call  the  spirits  from  the  dis- 
tance, and  indicate  to  them  where  food  may  be  found.  This 
food  is  of  a very  inferior  quality,  and  is  often  given  to  beg- 
gars after  the  ceremony  is  over.;  but  it  is  supposed  that  the 
incantations  of  the  priests  have  the  power  to  convert  both  the 
food  and  the  paper  into  just  what  is  required  to  satisfy  the 
wants  of  those  for  whom  they  are  intended.  The  amount  of 
money  spent  in  these  childish  ceremonies  is  immense. 

In  the  province  of  Che-kiang  it  is  generally  believed  that 
there  is  a place  called  Sang-chau,  where  a great  part  of  the 
inhabitants  are  Jewel,  who  come  out  in  the  afternoon  and  min- 
gle with  the  people.  It  is  said  that  they  may  be  distinguish- 
ed by  their  using  paper  instead  of  copper  money,  and  by  their 
not  casting  a shadow  in  the  moonlight.  It  is  also  believed 
that  in  the  hien  city  Fung-tu,  in  the  province  of  Sz-chwen, 
there  is  a street  called  Tin-yiang-Jciai — “ Street  of  the  Dead 
and  Living,”  one  side  of  which  is  inhabited  by  men,  and  the 
other  by  spirits.  Volumes  might  be  filled  with  current  tales 
respecting  ghosts  and  spirits  and  genii,  which  the  narrow 


166 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


limits  of  a chapter  do  not  admit  of  introducing.  The  Chinese 
have  a large  number  of  books  on  this  subject,  among  the  most 
noted  of  which  is  the  Liau-chai-che-i , a large  work  of  sixteen 
volumes. 

It  is  believed  that  there  is  another  class  of  ghosts,  called 
Kiang-shi,  which  differ  from  those  above  mentioned  in  the 
fact  that  their  bodies  do  not  decompose  at  death,  and  the 
united  soul  and  body  are  permitted  during  the  night  to  range 
about  at  pleasure.  Some  bodies  change  their  form  so  as  to 
resemble  beasts  of  prey,  but  some  retain  their  original  form 
and  appearance.  It  is  believed  that  the  latter  class,  if  they  eat 
any  material  food,  are  immediately  transformed  into  living 
men,  only  differing  from  other  mortals  in  their  being  unable 
to  behold  the  light  of  day.  It  is  said  that,  if  they  allow  the 
sun  to  shine  upon  them  they  die  instantly. 

Of  all  the  superstitions  relating  to  spirits,  those  respecting 
a class  of  them  called  Tu-sien  have  perhaps  the  greatest  influ- 
ence upon  the  minds  of  the  people.  Tu-sien , signifying  a 
spirit  in  the  body,  designates  a familiar  spirit,  by  the  assist- 
ance of  which  it  is  believed  that  persons  are  able  to  tell  for- 
tunes and  converse  with  the  dead.  They  are  supposed  to  be 
the  spirits  of  those  who  are  not  permitted  to  reassume  a body 
on  account  of  obligations  incurred  in  a former  state,  from 
which  they  have  not  yet  been  absolved.  They  repay  their 
debts  of  money  or  gratitude  by  serving  their  benefactors,  who 
have  preceded  them  in  coming  again  into  the  world,  in  en- 
abling them  to  acquire  wealth  by  fortune-telling.  They  do 
this  by  dwelling  in  their  bodies  as  familiar  spirits,  and  being 
their  medium  of  communication  with  the  unseen  world.  Per- 
sons supposed  to  be  possessed  of  these  spirits  are  visited  by 
multitudes,  particularly  those  who  have  recently  lost  relatives 
by  death,  and  wish  to  converse  with  them  through  a “ medi- 
um.” The  fortune-teller,  after  a conversation  with  the  appli- 
cant, invokes  the  aid  of  his  or  her  spirit  (many  of  these  for- 
tune-tellers are  women),  whose  attention  and  active  co-opera- 
tion are  signalized  by  sundry  contortions  of  the  body  and  a 


COMMUNICATIONS  THROUGH  A MEDIUM. 


167 


spasmodic  jerk  of  the  neck.  The  spirit  is  then  directed  either 
to  gain  the  desired  information  respecting  the  future,  or  to 
find  and  bring  reports  from  some  deceased  friend  whose  name, 
age,  place  of  burial,  etc.,  are  given.  As  is  the  case  in  other 
lands,  the  spirit  deigns  or  refuses  a response  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. 

Some  of  these  fortune-tellers  who  have  no  indebted  spirit 
to  offer  his  services  are  obliged  to  devise  means  to  secure  the 
assistance  of  one.  With  this  end  in  view,  they  first  procure  a 
little  image  made  of  the  wood  of  the  willow,  for  which  they 
obtain  a spirit  in  one  of  the  following  ways : Some  go  to  a 
grave-yard,  and  after  feasting  the  ghosts  of  the  dead,  make 
an  arrangement  with  one  to  reside  in  the  image.  The  image 
is  then  worshiped  for  several  weeks  continuously,  and  left  out 
of  doors  during  the  night,  to  be  wet  with  the  dews  of  heaven, 
and  drink  in  virtue  from  moonbeams ; after  which  it  is  re- 
garded as  an  oracle,  from  which  the  spirit  speaks  infallibly. 

Another  method  of  obtaining  a spirit  consists  in  writing 
on  the  little  image  the  characters  representing  the  horoscope 
of  some  clever  living  person  whose  spirit  is  desired,  and  then 
worshiping  the  image,  and  leaving  it  out-doors  until  this  per- 
son dies,  and  his  spirit  enters  the  image,  which  it  is  said  will 
surely  take  place  in  a very  short  time.  In  consequence  of  this 
superstition,  those  who  are  found  possessed  of  these  images 
sometimes  fall  under  the  suspicion  of  having  produced  the 
death  and  obtained  the  spirit  of  some  lately  deceased  person 
of  the  neighborhood,  and  may  be  accused,  tried,  and  condemn- 
ed to  death,  being  regarded  as  guilty  of  murder. 

Written  communications  from  spirits  are  not  unfrequently 
sought  for  in  the  following  manner : After  the  presence  and 
desired  offices  of  some  spirit  are  invoked,  two  or  more  persons 
support  with  their  hands  some  object  to  which  a pencil  is  at- 
tached in  a vertical  position,  and  extending  to  a table  below, 
covered  with  sand.  It  is  said  that  the  movements  of  the  pen- 
cil, involuntary  as  far  as  the  persons  holding  it  are  concerned, 
but  governed  by  the  influences  of  spirits,  describe  certain 


168 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


W BITING  W1TII  A FOBBED  PEN  AN  OEACLE  ON  SAND. 


characters  which  are  easily  deciphered,  and  which  often  bring 
to  light  remarkable  disclosures  and  revelations.  Many  who 
regard  themselves  persons  of  superior  intelligence  are  firm 
believers  in  this  mode  of  consulting  spirits. 

There  is  still  another  spirit,  called  the  Wu-tung,  principally 
noted  for  its  propensity  to  steal  and  to  frighten  people.  It 
is  said  to  have  its  favorites  among  dwellers  in  the  flesh,  and 
also  its  objects  of  dislike  ; and  that  it  secretly  transfers  mon- 
ey and  articles  of  value  from,  the  latter  to  the  former.  It  is 
also  supposed  to  produce  spirit-rappings  in  and  about  houses, 
and  to  cause  burning  flames  to  be  seen ; thus  frightening  the 
unoffending  inhabitants,  so  that  they  not  unfrequently  fly  from 
their  houses  to  find  safety  and  quiet  elsewhere.  As  in  the 
case  of  the  common  Kwei  these  enemies  can  be  bought  off  by 
an  idolatrous  feast.  It  is  probable  that  this  superstition  takes 
its  rise  from  appearances  of  the  “ ignis  fatuus ,”  and  the  ap- 
parent ground  on  which  it  rests  accounts  for  the  strong  hold 
it  has  on  the  minds  of  the  people. 

It  is  difficult  to  conceive  of  the  fear,  anxiety,  and  dread 
which  these  various  superstitions  occasion.  They  should  lead 
us  better  to  appreciate  that  gospel  which  delivers  us  from 


FIRST  PRINCIPLES  OF  FUNG-SHWUY. 


169 


bondage  to  fear,  by  teaching  us  to  recognize  in  every  event 
and  circumstance  the  hand  of  an  unseen  and  Almighty  Father, 
who  controls  all  beings  and  events,  and  makes  all  things  work 
together  for  good  to  them  that  fear  him. 

For  want  of  a better  term,  the  word  luck  is  used  to  repre- 
sent a something  which  is  as  important* in  the  estimation  of 
the  Chinese  as  it  is  difficult  of  explanation.  The  term  used  by 
natives  is  fung-shwuy,  composed  of  the  two  characters  which 
mean  wind  and  water.  These  however  give  but  little  assistance 
in  determining  the  meaning  of  the  compound  word.  This  term 
designates  an  ethereal  principle  or  influence  which  is  supposed 
to  pervade  the  earth  and  air,  and  to  exist  to  a greater  or  less 
extent  in  different  localities.  Those  which  are  supposed  to 
have  an  unusual  measure  of  it  are  valued  above  all  price, 
and  the  most  noted  spots  in  the  empire  are  those  which  have 
the  best  f ung-shwuy.  According  to  a general  theory  of  cor- 
respondences of  very  wide  application,  the  earth  is  supposed 
to  bear  a resemblance,  in  its  organization,  to  living  beings, 
having  its  veins  and  arteries,  and  a principle  of  life  and  vital- 
ity pervading  the  whole,  which  principle  is  fung-shwuy.  As 
some  parts  of  the  body  are  more  vital  than  others,  so  it  is  be- 
lieved that  fung-shwuy  exists  in  some  places  in  a greatly  con- 
centrated and  intensified  state. 

The  advantages  expected  from  the  vitalizing  influences  of 
such  places  are  vigor  of  body,  family  prosperity,  and  success 
in  business,  to  be  enjoyed  by  those  living  in  close  proximity 
to  them ; but  the  blessings  which  are  most  prized  and 
sought  for  are  those  which  result  to  children  in  consequence 
of  the  bodies  of  parents  being  buried  in  these  auspicious 
spots. 

Securing  a lucky  place  for  the  tomb  of  a parent  is  regarded 
as  the  great  event  of  first  importance  in  determining  the  for- 
tunes of  his  family.  The  influence  of  the  fung-shwuy , is  sup- 
posed to  be  communicated  to  the  body  of  the  deceased,  and 
through  it  to  his  descendants,  wherever  they  may  be  scat- 
tered. 


H 


170 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


The  reasons  given  by  natives  to  show  that  their  ideas  on 
this  subject  are  more  than  imaginary,  are  such  as  the  follow- 
ing : It  is  sahi  that  tombs  selected  and  prepared  previous  to 
the  death  of  future  occupants,  present  when  opened  very  dif- 
ferent appearances,  indicating  the  nature  of  the  ground,  and 
the  degree  of  the  vitalizing  principle  which  it  contains.  Some 
emit  a vapor  or  gas,  the  presence  of  which  is  regarded  as  a 
very  auspicious  circumstance.  In  some  are  found  fresh  leaves 
of  trees  and  flowers,  and  in  some  living  creatures,  such  as 
snakes  and  reptiles,  which  are  supposed  to  be  the  spontaneous 
production  of  the  life-giving  earth.  It  is  said  that  the  supe- 
rior character  of  some  tomb's  is  proved  by  the  fact,  that  lamps 
have  been  lighted  in  them  when  they  were  made,  and  found 
burning  years  afterward.  The  evidence  for  these  reputed 
facts  is  generally  nothing  more  than  that  “the  people  say 
so.”  The  fact  that  bodies  have  been  found  in  some  places  un- 
changed by  decomposition,  gives  a show  of  reason  to  this 
universal  superstition. 

This  imaginary  science  is  of  almost  universal  belief,  and, 
with  a few  exceptions,  has,  if  possible,  a stronger  hold  on  the 
minds  of  the  educated  classes  than  the  common  people.  It 
has  an  extensive  literature,  embracing  different  systems  and 
theories,  and  a class  of  men,  called  fung-shwuy  sin-sang,  or 
“ luck-doctors,”  whose  special  business  it  is  to  investigate  and 
apply  its  principles.  These  may  or  may  not  belong  to  the 
Buddhist  or  Tauist  priesthood.  They  are  generally  men  of 
great  pretensions  as  to  science  and  erudition,  use  in  their  con- 
versation many  technical  terms  which  other  people  are  not 
expected  to  understand,  and  are  looked  up  to  with  great  re- 
spect and  deference.  Some  of  them  acquire  such  a reputation, 
that  they  are  sent  for  from  great  distances,  and  receive  high 
fees  to  secure  their  services.  They  are  shown  the  general 
locality  within  which  a grave  is  desired,  and  urged  to  exhaust 
all  the  knowledge  of  their  art  in  finding  the  lucky  spot.  They 
write  down  the  date  of  birth  and  death  of  the  deceased,  and 
other  members  of  the  family,  spend  a day  or  two,  perhaps,  in 


THE  UNIVERSALITY  OF  THIS  SUPERSTITION.  171 

examining  minutely  the  contour  of  the  country,  the  hills,  canals, 
and  water-courses,  and  dragon  veins  and  pagodas,  their  rel- 
ative distances  and  directions,  and  then  go  home  to  consult 
their  books  and  diagrams  and  work  out  the  grand  result. 
The  spot  selected  may  be  in  a neighbor’s  field,  but  It  is  bought, 
if  possible,  at  almost  any  price.  After  burial,  if  a son  of  the 
deceased  is  successful  in  business  or  in  the  literary  examina- 
tions, or  a son  and  heir  is  born  into  the  family,  these  evi- 
dences of  good  fortune  are  sure  to  be  attributed  to  the  fact 
that  the  right  luck-doctor  was  employed,  and  the  right  spot 
secured. 

The  doctrine  of  the  change  of  luck  from  one  place  to  an- 
other is  necessary  to  the  fung-shiouy  theory,  in  order  to  ac- 
count for'failures  in  the  predictions  of  luck-doctors,  and  for 
the  varied  fortunes  of  the  same  family  in  different  generations. 
If  one  individual  of  the  family  meets  with  exceptional  bad 
fortune,  it  is  easily  accounted  for  by  the  simple  explanation 
that,  while  the  spot  is  a good  one,  he  must  have  been  guilty 
of  sins  unatoned  for  in  a previous  state. 

That  these  superstitions  pervade  every  rank  of  society 
from  the  highest  to  the  lowest,  may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that, 
in  times  of  war  and  struggles  between  contending  dynasties, 
it  is  the  object  of  each  party  to  destroy  the  ancestral  tomb  of 
its  antagonist;  regarding  this  as  the  most  effectual  way  to 
check  him  in  his  road  to  fortune.  In  endeavoring  to  2 nit 
down  the  Tai-ping  insurgents,  this  expedient  was  adopted. 
An  official  announcement,  made  by  the  governor  of  Ivwang-si 
in  1855,  stated  that  the  ancestral  tomb  of  Yang-siu-tsirtg , then 
the  leading  spirit  of  the  insurgents,  had  been  destroyed,  and 
that  there  was  found  in  it  a tortoise  with  green  hair,  which 
was  killed.  The  affirmed  existence  and  destruction  of  this 
prodigy  readily  accounted  for  the  former  success  of  the  as- 
piring  Eastern  prince,  and  the  speedy  and  terrible  overthrow 
which  followed. 

Not  unfrequently  a family  seeks  satisfaction  or  revenge 
from  another  family  with  which  it  is  at  enmity  by  breaking 


172 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


or  injuring  its  fung-shwuy.  This  consists  in  defacing  a noted 
tomb,  or  cutting  trees  connected  with  it.  Prosecutions  before 
the  officers  on  the  charge  of  breaking  fung-shwuy  are  enter- 
tained by  them  as  offenses  of  the  gravest  character,  and  are 
treated  witli  great  severity. 

The  arch-deceiver  *has  not  only  succeeded  in  making  the 
whole  nation  slaves  to  this  puerile  and  unfounded  superstition, 
but  has  connected  such  features  with  it  as  to  introduce  end- 
less difficulties  and  discords  in  families.  The  position  on  the 
left  side  of  the  tomb  is  the  place  of  honor,  and  belongs  to  the 
first  son ; the  nearest  place  on  the  right  belongs  to  the  second 
son,  and  thus  the  relative  positions  of  the  different  members 
of  the  family  with  reference  to  the  tomb  are  fixed.  Now  the 
position  of  one  individual  being  in  the  direction  of  a hill  or 
water-course  may  be  propitious  ; while  that  of  another,  being 
in  the  direction  of  a hill  or  another  tomb,  may  be  unpropitious. 
Thus  supposed  interests  are  made  to  clash ; one  is  as  earnest  to 
secure  a certain  place  as  the  other  is  opposed  to  it,  and  quarrels 
and  litigation  ensue  respecting  the  place  of  the  burial  of  a par- 
ent which  may  last  for  life.  Other  notions  respecting  fung- 
shwuy  add  still  further  to  the  difficulties  of  burial,  and  some- 
times postpone  it  for  years,  while  the  body  of  the  deceased 
is  kept  in  the  house  in  a hermetically  sealed  coffin.  One  per- 
son may  insist  on  having  the  burial  postponed  for  a longer  or 
shorter  period  of  time,  because  the  year  of  the  Chinese  sexag- 
enary cycle  clashes  with  his  particular  horoscope.  Sometimes 
a family  agrees  to  defer  a burial,  because  the  year  in  which  it 
woulcf  otherwise  take  place  happens  to  be  one  in  which  it  is 
not  lucky  to  build  a tomb  fronting  in  the  particular  direction 
designated  by  the  nature  of  the  place  chosen. 

A story  well  known  in  Ningpo,  and  often  referred  to  as  a 
conclusive  proof  of  the  existence  and  importance  of  fung-shwuy, 
will  further  illustrate  the  ideas  of  the  people  on  this  subject. 
In  the  late  dynasty,  a poor  man  of  the  name  of  Du  died  in 
time  of  pestilence,  having  no  friends  to  superintend  his  burial. 
Thenuthorities  provided  a coffin  for  the  body,  and  engaged  some 


FUNG-S1IWUY  AS  APPLIED  TO  HOUSE-BUILDING.  173 

beggars  to  take  it  across  the  river  and  leave  it  anywhere  on 
the  opposite  side.  While  the  body  was  being  borne  through 
the  fields,  the  rope  by  which  it  was  suspended  broke,  and  it 
was  determined  to  leave  it  where  it  fell.  The  question  arose 
as  to  the  direction  in  which  the  head  should  be  turned ; and 
it  was  decided  by  the  position  of  the  bamboo  pole  used  in  car- 
rying the  coffin,  which  had  been  thrown  down  at  random.  A 
luck-hunting  priest,  who  had  had  his  attention  directed  to  this 
locality  as  one  remarkable  for  auspicious  influences,  was  vain- 
ly endeavoring  to  find  the  exact  culminating  point  of  the  fung- 
shwuy  when  these  occurrences  took  place.  Proceeding  to  the 
spot,  and  taking  the  bearings  of  different  important  points, 
he  exclaimed,  “ Why,  this  is  the  very  spot  I have  been  seek- 
ing ; and,  now  it  is  discovered  and  occupied  by  accident,  only 
one  thing  is  wanting  ; the  direction  of  the  coffin  is  out  of  the 
proper  line  just  a point !”  While  the  priest  was  thus  soliloquiz- 
ing and  musing  over  the  mysterious  designs  of  heaven  in  con- 
ferring happiness  on  such  a poor  man,  one  of  the  bearers  came 
running  back  for  a rope  which  had  been  left  under  the  coffin, 
where  i t had  fallen,  and  in  pulling  this  out  the  coffin  was  brought 
exactly  into  the  favored  position.  The  consequence  was,  that 
the  priest  gave  up  his  profession  in  disgust,  and  the  fortunate 
son  of  him  who  had  only  beggars  at  his  funeral  rose  to  the 
third  station  of  dignity  and  power  in  the  empire.  This  story 
probably  originated  in  the  fact  that  many  members  of  the  Du 
family  held  offices  under  the  Ming  dynasty. 

The  methods  by  which  the  principles  of  fung-shwuy  are 
applied  to  house-building  are  different  from  those  which  reg- 
ulate the  position  and  construction  of  tombs,  and  are  generally 
attended  to  by  a different  class  of  men.  Six  stars  are  supposed 
to  preside  over  the  different  parts  of  Chinese  houses,  which  are 
composed  of  buildings  more  or  less  distinct,  and  separated  from 
each  other  by  courts.  The  building  on  the  left  side  is  under 
the  auspices  of  the  star  Green  Dragon,  that  on  the  right  un- 
der those  of  the  White  Tiger,  and  so  on.  The  dragon  dislikes 
filth,  and  the  tiger  is  afraid  of  heat ; so,  refuse  must  not  be 


174 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


thrown  in  front  of  the  left  side,  that  is,  under  the  Dragon’s  nose ; 
and  the  kitchen  must  not  be  built  near  the  head  or  the  tail  of 
the  Tiger.  The  back  part  of  the  right  side  must  not  be  built 
high,  as  the  elevation  of  the  Tiger’s  tail  indicates  that  he  is 
about  to  pounce  upon  his  prey.  It  would  be  expected  that  the 
disregard  of  such  obvious  improprieties  would  be  atoned  for 
by  frequent  deaths  in  the  family.  These  are  the  general  and 
important  principles  of  house-building  which  are  level  to  the 
understanding  of  the  people  ; the  minutiae  of  the  science  in  its 
minor  details  is  left  to  professional  house-planners,  who  are  gov- 
erned to  a great  extent  by  their  peculiar  fancies.  If  a principal 
door  is  opened  under  one  star,  the  family  will  be  subject  to  the 
depredations  of  thieves  ; if  under  another,  they  will  be  liable  to 
some  other  misfortune.  A door  may  be  opened  in  a given  di- 
rection during  one  year  of  the  cycle  where  it  would  not  be  pru- 
dent to  do  it  in  the  following  year.  When  necessity  requires 
that  a front  door  should  be  opened  on  a street  in  an  inauspi- 
cious direction,  the  evil  effects  of  the  consequent  bad  luck  are 
in  a measure  obviated  by  making  the  passage  from  the  door 
tortuous  and  irregular.  When  a family  is  afflicted  with  sick- 
ness, or'  is  unsuccessful  in  business,  or  mourns  over  what  is  re- 
garded the  greatest  of  misfortunes,  that  of  having  no  son  to 
perpetuate  their  name,  and  to  sacrifice  to  the  spirits  of  departed 
ancestors,  the  fact  is  discovered  that  they  must  have  employed 
the  wrong  luck-doctor,  and  another  one  is  called.  After  exam- 
ining the  premises  carefully,  he  sagely  remarks  that  the  other 
man  left  out  some  important  factor  in  his  computation,  or  made 
some  mistake,  and  he  is  glad  to  inform  them  that  he  understands 
the  whole  matter,  and  can  make  every  thing  right  without  much 
trouble.  His  recommendations  are  likely  to  be  such  as  the  fol- 
lowing: You  must  close  up  this  door,  and  open  another  there. 
The  kitchen  and  cooking  range  must  be  readjusted;  you  should 
change  your  rooms  for  sleeping  and  eatirig ; or  if  you  must 
occupy  the  same  rooms  as  sleeping  apartments,  at  least  change 
the  position  of  t^ie  beds.  When  these  directions  are  complied 
with,  the  hearts  of  the  inmates  of  the  family  are  quieted,  and 


COMPLAINTS  AGAINST  FOREIGNERS. 


175 


if  the  next  year  proves  a propitious  one,  the  same  luck-doctor 
is  sure  to  be  called  whenever  the  services  of  such  a person  are 
again  required. 

Scholars  aspiring  after  literary  honors  are  told  that  they 
will  succeed  at  the  examinations  if  they  study  by  a certain  win- 
dow ; and  if  the  fronting  of  the  window  is  hardly  what  might 
be  desired,  the  difficulty  may  be  remedied  by  an  outside  screen, 
or  a lantern  hung  up  at  night  to  give  the  luck  a slight  change 
of  direction. 

A man  is  supposed  to  gain  a great  advantage  by  having 
his  house  higher  than  his  neighbors.  In  consequence  of  this 
superstition,  foreigners  have  found  it  very  difficult  to  erect 
houses,  and  especially  churches,  in  Chinese  cities.  Not  a few 
of  the  complaints  entered  by  natives  against  foreigners  in 
their  consulates  relate  to  their  utter  disregard  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  fung-shwuy , and  the  injuries  accruing  therefrom 
to  native  interests.  Many  illustrations  might  be  given  of  the 
jealousy  of  the  Chinese  in  this  particular,  and  the  different  ca- 
lamities which  they  attribute  to  the  houses  of  foreigners. 

Some  years  since  the  inhabitants  of  Ningpo  were  much 
alarmed  by  the  building  of  a Roman  Catholic  cathedral  in 
the  city.  As  it  rose  higher  and  higher,  overtopping  all  other 
structures,  the  alarm  increased,  and  became  intense  when  the 
top  of  the  steeple  was  crowned  with  a weather-cock.  One 
part  of  the  city,  called  Centipede  Street,  was  in  special  dan- 
ger. Its  name  was  due  to  the  small  streets  or  alleys  branch- 
ing off  from  both  sides  like  the  legs  of  a centipede ; and  near 
the  end  of  it  was  the  city  bell-tower,  the  highest  building  with- 
in the  walls,  which  was  regarded  as  the  centipede’s  uplifted 
head.  The  steeple  portended  evil  to  the  whole  city,  and  par- 
ticularly to  the  bell-tower,  from  which  it  had  usurped  the 
pre-eminence  of  height ; and  the  weather-cock  portended  spe- 
cial evil  to  the  Centipede  Street,  because  cocks  eat  insects  and 
worms  of  various  kinds,  including,  of  course,  centipedes  ! 
The  luck-doctor  sounded  the  alarm,  but  the  foreigners  paid 
no  attention.  Unfortunately  for  the  city,  but  fortunately  for 


176 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


the  reputation  of  the  luck-doctors,  the  Centipede  Street  took 
fire,  and  part  of  it,  together  with  the  Chinese  bell-tower,  was 
reduced  to  ashes.  Complaints  in  the  foreign  consulates  now 
became  more  urgent,  but  the  Chinamen  were  no  doubt  laugh- 
ed at,  and  probably  returned  home  complaining  that  “ the  stu- 
pid foreigners  would  not  and  could  not  understand  any  thing 
about  it.”  They  were  obliged  to  have  recourse  again  to  the 
luck-doctors,  and  it  is  said  that  one  of  them  very  happily  sug- 
gested that,  “While  cocks  may  be  supposed  to  eat  centi- 
pedes, wild-cats  certainly  eat  cocks and  a hideous  wild- 
cat was  depicted  by  an  eminent  artist  on  a high  wall  con- 
fronting the  dreaded  foreign  edifice.  Strange  to  say,  in  a 
short  time  the  cathedral  crumbled  and  fell.  The  Chinese 
bell-tower  was,  as  if  in  defiance,  built  two  or  three  stories 
higher  than  before,  and  again  peace  and  tranquillity  reigned 
in  the  city.  Some  have  accounted  for  the  falling  of  the  ca- 
thedral by  its  having  been  built  of  brick  not  sufficiently  burn- 
ed ; but  the  natives  say  that  this  is  a characteristic  explana- 
tion of  the  uninformed  foreigners,  who  know  nothing  of  the 
principles  and  effects  of  fung-shwuy.  Notwithstanding  all 
that  may  be  said  to  the  natives  in  opposition  to  this  system, 
they  will  refer  to  the  above  well-authenticated  facts,  and  simi- 
lar ones  with  which  their  books  are  full,  and  facts  are  stub- 
born things — in  China  as  well  as  elsewhere. 

It  is  the  unvarying  custom  in  many  places  in  China,  when- 
ever a new  house  is  built,  to  suspend  lanterns  on  high  poles 
for  several  nights  in  succession  after  the  erection  of  the  frame- 
work, in  order  to  attract  luck  to  the  new  edifice.  A great 
noise  is  also  kept  up  during  the  night  by  gongs.  The  neigh- 
bors are  obliged,  in  self-defense,  to  resort  to  the  same  means 
to  avoid  their  luck  being  drawn  away  from  them,  each  family 
striving  to  have  its  lanterns  the  highest.  On  such  occasions, 
the  appearance  of  a neighborhood,  with  its  noise  and  illumi- 
nation, resembles  the  celebration  of  a festival. 

A house  is  considered  unlucky,  not  only  when  it  is  sur- 
rounded by  higher  ones,  but  when  the  corners  of  other  houses 


FUNG-SHWUY  AS  APPLIED  TO  CANALS. 


177 


point  toward  it.  The  adverse  influences  to  -which  a place 
under  such  circumstances  is  exposed  are  counteracted  by  fig- 
ures of  warriors  with  drawn  swords,  and  lions  and  tigers  with 
open  mouths,  and  other  similar  devices,  which  are  placed  on 
the  tiling  of  the  house  in  such  a position  as  to  confront  the 
object  from  wrhich  danger  is  apprehended.  Mirrors  are  also 
sometimes  used  to  reflect  the  evil  influences  back.  The  idea, 
in  these  cases,  is  not  simply  that  of  a negative  evil,  consisting 
of  the  abstraction  of  the  luck  which  the  house  would  other- 
wise be  possessed  of,  but  that  of  a positive  influence  the  very 
reverse  of  fung-shwuy.  A house  standing  at  the  terminus 
of  a street  or  alley  where  the  road  branches  off  on  each  side, 
is  supposed  to  be  subjected  to  the  same  evil  influence,  from 
the  stream  of  bad  luck  flowing  along  the  street  and  beating 
against  it.  A stone  slab  is  generally  seen  erected  at  such 
places  bearing  the  inscription  Tai  shan  shih  lean  tang — “ I 
am,  or  I represent,  the  Ta  shan  rock,  and  am  not  afraid  to 
withstand  you.”  Ta  shan  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  celebrated  mountains  in  the  empire ; and  as  a solid 
mountain  not  only  withstands  all  evil  influences,  but  is  the 
source  of  those  wdiich  are  auspicious,  this  name  is  used  as  a 
charm  to  frighten  back  the  adverse  tide  of  evil.  ISTo  one  ever 
supposes  that  these  stones  came  from  Ta  shan,  and  it  is  amus- 
ing to  see  the  inscription  sometimes  on  a brick. 

In  the  opening  of  canals  and  construction  of  bridges,  one 
of  the  first  considerations  is,  what  will  be  the  effect  on  the 
fung-shwuy  ? Some  places  which  might  be  easily  connected 
by  a canal  are  obliged  to  be  without  the  convenience  of  this 
means  of  communication,  because  a celebrated  luck-prognos- 
ticator has  said  that  such  a canal  would  destroy  the  fung- 
shwuy  of  the  neighborhood.  In  constructing  bridges  in  a 
particular  place,  it  may  be  imagined  that  the  luck  will  be  fa- 
vorable for  one  family,  and  unfavorable  for  another  ; and  dif- 
ficulties and  law-suits  ensue,  which  are  generally  settled  by 
an  amount  of  money  paid  by  the  party  supposed  to  have  the 
^■vantage  to  his  less  fortunate  neighbors. 

II  2 


178 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


In  some  sections  the  bridges  are  very  low,  and  in  time  of 
high  water  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  covers  of  boats  taken 
off,  in  order  to  pass  under  them.  The  people  are  subject  to 
this  great  inconvenience,  not  because  of  the  necessary  exjiense 
of  building  the  bridges  a little  higher,  which  would  be  com- 
paratively a small  matter,  but  because  of  the  influence  of  a 
wealthy  family,  or  several  wealthy  families  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, which  have  had  the  good  fortune  to  become  rich,  and 
are  afraid  their  luck  will  be  broken  by  any  important  change 
in  the  face  of  the  country. 

Natives  who  are  not  intimately  acquainted  with  foreigners 
naturally  suppose  that  we  have  no  less  regard  for  fung-shwuy 
than  they,  and  that,  from  our  superior  knowledge  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  “ heaven  and  earth,”  we  are  enabled  to  secure  the 
most  lucky  place.  «-Our  fondness  for  visiting  hills  and  water- 
courses, and  collecting  minerals,  plants,  etc.,  is  attributed  to 
the  desire  of  finding  precious  metals  and  precious  influences. 
When  we  stop  to  admire  a beautiful  view  or  landscape,  a Chi- 
nese by-stander  is  almost  sure  to  remark,  “ He  is  looking  for 
fung-shwuy .”  On  visiting  a beautiful  spot  on  a mountain- 
side, I once  found  a young  man  preparing  a tomb  for  his 
father,  whose  interest  and  anxiety  about  the  matter  in  which 
he  was  engaged  so  far  overcame  his  surprise  and  curiosity  on 
seeing  a stranger  and  a foreigner  in  such  an  unfrequented 
place,  that  his  first  question  was,  “ Have  I really  chosen  a good 
location  ?” 

A few  of  the  people  of  the  more  intelligent  class,  who  have 
been  long  connected  with  us,  and  know  our  utter  disregard  of 
these  childish  superstitions,  will  sometimes  decry  some  of  the 
most  glaringly  absurd  of  them  ; but,  while  they  profess  their 
contempt  for  the  credulity  of  their  countrymen  in  some  points, 
they  are  sure  to  betray  their  own  weakness  in  others. 


THE  “EIGHT  DIAGRAMS.” 


179 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

DIFFERENT  MODES  OF  DIVINATION. 

Importance  of  the  Eight  Diagrams. — Translation  of  part  of  a Preface  of 
the  Chinese  Work,  “ Source  of  True  Divination.” — Mode  of  divining 
by  Diagrams,  Mode  of  divining  by  Means  of  the  “ Eight  Characters.” 
— An  individual  Case  in  Illustration. — Divination  by  Astrology. -^-Illus- 
trative official  Document. — Fortune-telling  by  the  Use  of  Birds,  Snakes, 
and  Turtles. — Telling  the  Fortunes  of  past  and  future  States  of  Exist- 
ence.— Manner  in  which  Failures  are  accounted  for. — Physiognomy  and 
Palmistry. — Choosing  of  “ Lucky  Days.” — Effects  of  being  born  under 
certain  Stars. — Divination  by  Dreams. 

In  an  unevangelized  and  superstitious  nation  like  the  Chi- 
nese, possessed  of  an  ancient  and  voluminous  literature,  the  ex- 
istence of  many  theories  and  arts  for  unlocking  the  secrets  of 
futurity  might  naturally  he  expected.  The  abstruse  character 
of  some  of  these  mystic  arts,  which  are  not  understood  even 
by  those  who  practice  them,  and  which  owe  much  of  their  in- 
fluence to  the  prestige  of  antiquity,  may  be  in  a manner  de- 
scribed, but  can  not  be  satisfactorily  explained. 

In  the  practice  of  divination,  great  use  is  made  of  the 
“ Eight  Diagrams,”  invented  by  the  Emperor  Fuh-hi,  proba- 
bly nearly  three  thousand  years  before  Christ.  About  eleven 
centuries  before  Christ,  Wen-ioang,  the  Literary  Prince,  and 
his  son,  Chow-kung,  developed  these  eight  diagrams  into 
sixty-four,  attaching  to  them  additional  ideas  and  explana- 
tions. Confucius,  about  five  hundred  years  before  Christ, 
collected  and  perpetuated  these  relics  of  the  past  in  the  Yih- 
king,  or  “Book  of  Changes,”  which  is  still  one  of  the  most 
venerated  of  the  ancient  Chinese  classics.  These  diagrams 
are  nothing  but  arbitrary  signs,  the  original  meaning  of  which 
can  not  be  satisfactorily  determined.  They  are  supposed  to 


180 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


embody  the  principles  by  which  the  universe  was  evolved 
out  of  chaotic  matter,  and  which,  by  necessary  and  unchang- 
ing laws,  determine  all  the  changes  which  take  place  in  na- 
ture. Those  who  profess  to  be  able  to  disclose  future  events 
generally  rest  their  claims  upon  public  credulity,  on  sorao 
new  views  gained  of  this  book  of  mysteries,  or  on  their  fa- 
miliarity with  books  written  by  others  in  explanation  of  it. 
They  suppose  that  the  mines  of  wisdom  hid  in  these  diagrams 
have  never  been  fully  explored,  and  that  great  advantages 
will  accrue  to  those  who  have  the  penetration  to  find  the 
key  to  their  contents.  It  is  a common  remark  among  the 
Chinese,  “If  foreigners,  with  all  their  skill  and  ingenuity, 
possess  themselves  of  the  Yih-Jcing,  all  the  world  will  become 
subject  to  them.”  It  is  also  said  that  Heaven  will  not  per- 
mit the'  Yih-Jcing  to  be  taken  out  of  the  empire,  and  that, 
when  the  attempt  to  export  it  has  been  made,  vessels  bearing 
it  across  the  sea  have  encountered  storms  and  tempests  until 
it  has  been  thrown  overboard. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  Chau  dynasty,  which  continued 
to  249  n.c.,  JKwei  huh  sien  sz  applied  the  Yih-hing  to  the 
use  of  soothsaying,  and  is  regarded  as  the  father  of  augurs, 
though  no  book  has  come  down  to  the  present  from  him. 
During  the  present  and  preceding  dynasties,  many  books  have 
been  written  on  this  subject,  among  the  most  noted  of  which 
is  the  Poh  shi  ching  tsung — “ Source  of  True  Divination,” 
written  in  the  forty-eighth  year  of  the  Emperor  Kang-hi. 
This  work  consists  of  six  volumes,  and  contains  a minute  and 
detailed  system  of  elaborated  nonsense,  such  as  it  would  be 
difficult  to  find  a parallel  to  in  any  language.  The  preface 
will  perhaps  give  as  clear  an  idea  of  its  contents  as  could  be 
otherwise  obtained,  and  forcibly  reminds  one  of  the  manner 
in  which  quacks  in  other  lands  decry  the  nostrums  of  others, 
while  they  extol  their  own.  It  contains,  also,  a true  and  live- 
ly picture  of  the  evils  which  the  system  it  advocates  entails 
upon  the  people.  The  following  is  a translation  of  the  great- 
er part  of  it : 


“SOUKCE  OF  TRUE  DIVINATION.”  181 

“ The  secret  of  augury  consists  in  communication  with  the 
gods.  Its  object  is  to  determine  good  and  evil  fortune,  to 
settle  doubt  and  anxiety,  to  discriminate  between  yin  and 
yang  in  the  different  forms  of  the  diagrams.  The  interpre- 
tation of  the  transformations  is  deep  and  mysterious.  The 
theory  of  this  science  is  most  intricate,  the  practice  of  it 
most  important.  The  sacred  classic  says,  ‘That  which  is 
true  gives  indications  of  the  future therefore,  if  a person 
seeking  a response  is  not  sincere,  he  can  not  move  the  gods ; 
if  the  interpreter  of  the  response  is  careless  and  inconsiderate 
in  his  divinations,  they  will  not  be  fulfilled.  These  two  re- 
marks are  emphatically  true  and  important.  It  is  common 
to  see  persons  seek  a response  when  occasion  requires,  while 
sincerity  is  entirely  forgotten.  When,  from  intoxication  and 
feasting,  or  licentious  pleasures,  they  proceed  to  invoke  the 
assistance  of  the  gods,  what  infatuation  to  suppose  that  their 
prayers  will  move  them  ! Besides,  the  wealthy  or  honorable 
affecting  a contempt  for  the  art  of  soothsaying,  either  look  to 
a friend,  or  send  a servant  to  ask  a response  in  their  stead, 
without  showing  their  zeal  and  earnestness  by  presenting 
themselves  in  person.  Hence,  when  no  response  is  given,  or 
the  interpretation  is  not  verified,  they  lay  the  blame  at  the 
door  of  the  augur,  forgetting  that  the  failure  is  due  to  their 
want  of  sincerity.  This  is  the  fault  of  the  one  seeking  the 
response.  It  is  the  great  fault  of  augurs  that,  from  a de- 
sire of  gain,  they  use  the  art  of  divination  as  a trap  to  ensnare 
the  people.  For  instance,  in  case  of  sickness  (than  which 
nothing  can  be  more  important),  some,  regardless  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  rectitude,  have  a private  understanding  with  Bud- 
dhist priests,  and  nuns,  and  Tauists,  by  which  they  are  to 
share  in  their  gains,  thus  forgetting  augury  in  their  lust  after 
money.*  They  determine  whether  to  exact  a greater  or  less 
amount  from  the  applicant  by  observing  his  wealth  or  pover- 

* The  augur,  as  a return  for  directing  the  applicant  to  worship  in  a 
particular  temple,  is  permitted  to  share  the  money  paid  to  the  priests  of 
that  temple. 


182  CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 

ty ; they  recklessly  prescribe  that  a certain  number  of  chap- 
ters of  prayer  shall  be  repeated  at  some  Buddhist  or  Tauist 
temple,  or  that  a certain  number  of  days  shall  be  spent  in 
chanting  over  a sacred  book  in  a nunnery.  The  applicant, 
overcome  by  anxiety,  readily  assents  to  any  thing.  If  the 
individual  be  wealthy,  it  matters  little  ; if  he  be  poor,  he  may 
be  led  to  pawn  his  clothes,  contract  debts,  and  squander  his 
property,  and  may  be  thus  reduced  to  the  severest  straits  and 
necessities,  while  he  indulges  in  the  hope  that  the  sick  person 
will  be  restored.  But,  in  fact,  before  the  prayers  are  finish- 
ed, the  sick  person  dies  ; while  the  sacred  book  is  being  read, 
the  sufferer  is  no  more.  These  injuries  result  from  alliances 
with  Buddhists  and  Tauists.  Again,  inexperienced  physi- 
cians, unskilled  in  their  profession,  apply  for  assistance  in 
gaining  practice,  and  the  augur,  in  his  prayers  and  incan- 
tations, indicates  clearly  where  this  physician  is  to  be  found 
— thus  furnishing  him  with  employment.  They  do  not  con- 
sider that,  while  the  augur  secures  in  a year  a little  gain, 
the  sick  man,  in  an  unsuspecting  moment,  meets  death  by  the 
hand  of  his  attendant.  This  is  the  sin  of  forming  an  alliance 
with  physicians.  These  two  evils  exist  everywhere,  and  are 
the  plague  of  every  city.  I have  suspended  my  sign  in  front 
of  the  office  of  the  military  magistrate.  If  the  above  classes 
of  men  come  to  tempt  me,  I take  an  oath  to  reject  all  their 
proffers,  and  will,  in  every  case,  carefully  divine  according  to 
the  diagrams,  and  no  doubt  my  prognostications  will  prove 
true.” 

In  every  place  of  any  considerable  size  fortune-tellers  of 
this  class  are  numerous.  They  are  not  unfrequently  blind, 
and,  when  so,  have  an  assistant.  The  manner  of  their  divina- 
tion is  as  follows : When  a person  wishing  a response  pre- 
sents himself,  a small  box,  containing  three  copper  cash,  is 
handed  to  him,  which  he  takes  very  reverently  in  both  hands, 
and  with  which  he  describes  a circle  around  incense-sticks 
burning  before  paintings  of  the  patrons  of  the  art  of  divina- 
tion. After  having  made  his  prostrations  before  these  paint- 


THE  MANNER  OF  CONDUCTING  DIVINATION.  183 

mgs,  lie  proceeds  in  the  same  reverent  manner  to  the  door,  and 
then  invokes  the  aid  of  heaven,  in  a form  somewhat  like  the 

following : “ To  day,  I , residing  near  the  temple , 

on  account  of  sickness  in  my  family  (or  for  some  other  cause, 
as  the  case  may  be),  present  myself  to  obtain  a true  response 
respecting  this  matter.  Let  me  know  the  event,  whether  it  be 
favorable,  or  the  contrary.”  This  ceremony  being  performed, 
the  applicant  places  the  box  with  cash  in  the  hands  of  the  di- 
viner, who  also,  after  asking  a few  questions,  waves  it  with 
even  greater  solemnity  over  the  table  of  incense.  He  then  re- 
peats a form  of  prayer,  generally  addressed  to  the  patrons  of 
the  mystic  art.  The  form  prescribed  in  the  book  before  re- 
ferred to  is  the  following:  “Though  Heaven  has  no  voice, 
when  addressed,  there  is  a response ; the  gods  are  living,  and, 
when  invoked,  are  near.  A man  is  now  present  who  is  harass- 
ed with  anxieties,  and  is  unable  to  solve  his  doubts  and  per- 
plexities. "We  can  only  look  to  the  gods  to  instruct  us  as  to 
what  is  or  is  not  to  take  place.”  This  done,  the  box  is  shaken, 
and  the  cash  are  cast  upon  the  table  three  times  in  succession. 
The  upper  surfaces  of  the  coins  are  observed  each  time,  and 
will  indicate,  according  to  the  plan  adopted  by  the  augur, 
one  of  the  eight  diagrams.  After  another  prayer,  the  cash 
are  again  cast  three  times,  and  the  different  combinations, 
together  with  the  previous  results,  will  point  out  one  of  the 
sixty-four  diagrams.  One  of  these  having  been  in  this  way 
determined,  the  next  question  is  how  to  interpret  it.  Three 
distinct  considerations  combine  to  fix  this  interpretation,  and 
to  give  an  endless  variety  to  the  meanings  of  each  diagram. 
These  are,  the  particular  objects  sought  in  the  divination — 
the  meaning,  or  power,  of  the  two  characters  designating  the 
current  month,  and  the  meaning  of  the  two  characters  desig- 
nating the  day.  The  greater  part  of  the  book  above  referred 
to  is  occupied  with  minute  instructions  to  aid  in  the  right  in- 
terpretation of  the  diagrams  in  all  supposable  cases  and  cir-* 
cumstances.  The  diviner  being  a close  observer  of  human 
nature,  is  influenced,  in  a great  measure,  in  his  interpretations 


184 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


by  what  lie  has  been  able  to  learn  through  shrewcl  and  indi- 
rect interrogations  respecting  the  character  and  circumstances 
of  the  applicant.  The  diagram,  with  its  explanation,  is  writ- 
ten out  and  handed  to  the  inquirer,  who  sometimes  has  it  in- 
terpreted a second  time  in  another  place.  A larger  or  smaller 
sum  is  paid  to  these  fortune-tellers,  according  to  the  circum- 
stances of  the  applicant,  and  the  importance  of  the  matter  in 
hand.  As  has  been  before  intimated,  no  small  part  of  the 
gains  of  those  who  engage  in  this  occupation  is  obtained  by 
making  business  for  priests  and  physicians,  for  doing  which 
they  receive  a consideration  from  them. 

In  the  practice  of  divination  above  described,  called  7ci-7co, 
the  object  is  to  determine  the  issue  of  any  present  difficulty 
or  emergency.  In  less  urgent  cases,  when  a person  is  in  doubt 
with  reference  to  his  business  affairs,  oj  has  a curiosity  to 
know  the  general  fortunes  of  his  future  life,  another  method 
of  anticipating  the  future  is  resorted  to,  called  swan-ming, 
“ reckon  the  life.”  In  Ici-Jco  the  correctness  of  the  divination 
is  supposed  to  be  due,  not  only  to  the  right  interpretation  of 
the  mysterious  and  unchanging  principles  of  the  diagrams, 
but  to  the  indications  of  the  gods,  whose  assistance  is  regard- 
ed most  important.  In  swan-ming  a knowledge  of  the  future 
is  supposed  to  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  hidden  arts  alone, 
the  special  assistance  of  the  gods  not  being  sought.  The 
most  common  mode  of  swan-ming  is  that  of  “ examining  the 
eight  characters,”  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  pi  ming  tsz, 
“ examining  the  paper  of  life.”  In  describing  this  mode  of 
divination,  it  will  be  necessary  first  to  refer  to  the  Chinese 
mode  of  reckoning  time.  This  is  done  by  the  use  of  a sex- 
agenary cycle,  which  gives  names  to  years,  months,  days,  and 
hours.  It  consists  of  sixty  dissyllabic  words,  which  are  form- 
ed by  a combination  of  two  sets  of  characters,  numbering  ten 
and  twelve  respectively ; the  former  being  regarded  as  con- 
- nected  with  heaven,  or  the  Yang  principle,  and  the  latter  with 
earth,  or  the  Yin  principle.  Each  of  the  twelve  characters 
is  used  five  times,  and  each  of  the  ten  six  times.  These  com- 


FORTUNE-TELLING  BY  EIGHT  CHARACTERS.  185 


binations  of  two  characters  each  are  applied  to  designate  sixty 
successive  years,  sixty  successive  months,  sixty  successive 
days,  and  sixty  successive  hours ; these  sixty  names  revolving 
in  perpetual  cycles,  in  the  greater  and  lesser  divisions  of  time. 
Each  one  of  these  two  sets  of  characters  is  supposed  to  have 
a certain  mysterious  connection  with  one  or  other  of  what  are 
regarded  as  “ the  five  elements,”  viz.,  metal,  wood,  water,  fire, 
and  earth. 

With  these  preliminary  observations,  we  may  get  some 
idea  of  the  manner  in  which  pi  mine]  tsz  is  practiced.  A 
person  presents  himself  before  the  diviner  to  ask  the  general 
question,  whether  the  present  period  of  his  life  is  auspicious 
or  otherwise,  with  special  reference  to  the  prosecution  of 
business,  change  of  residence,  attending  the  examinations, 
etc.  The  applicant  is  first  required  to  state  the  year,  month, 
day,  and  hour  of  his  birth.  The  couplets  of  characters  rep- 
resenting each  of  these  four  divisions  of  time  present  togeth- 
er the  “ eight  characters,”  which  form  the  basis  of  the  calcu- 
lation. 

The  eight  characters  of  the  Chinaman,  through  whom 
much  of  the  information  in  this  chapter  was  derived,  may 
serve  as  an  example.  The  most  important,  or  leading  charac- 
ter, is  always  the  former  of  the  two  representing  the  day  of 
birth.  This  character  happens  to  be,  in  the  present  instance, 
connected  with  the  element  wood , or  tree,  therefore  the  life  of 
the  individual  in  question  has  a mystical  connection  with  a 
tree.  The  day  of  birth  occurs  in  one  of  the  autumn  months,  a 
time  unfavorable  to  the  growth  and  luxuriance  of  vegetation  ; 
hence,  without  some  special  reason  to  the  contrary,  the  general 
fact  is  arrived  at,  that  the  individual  will  be  weak  and  deli- 
cate. In  addition  to  this,  one  of  the  characters  representing 
the  month,  and  one  of  those  representing  the  hour,  are  con- 
nected with  metal ; metal  cuts  wood,  therefore  the  condition 
of  the  individual  is  still  more  precarious ! Two  of  the  other 
characters  are  connected  with  earth,  which  produces  metal, 
and  this  makes  the  case  of  the  individual' even  more  deplora 


186 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


ble ! But,  on  the  other  hand,  one  of  the  characters  is  con- 
nected with  water,  which  contributes  to  the  growth  of  wood. 
This  happy  circumstance,  together  with  others  less  easy  of 
explanation,  serves  to  counteract  to  some  extent  adverse  influ- 
ences. In  every  case,  the  divination  consists  in  striking  a bal- 
ance between  good  and  evil  influences,  in  doing  which  there  is 
a wide  scope  for  the  play  of  individual  fancies.  Those  who 
practice  this  art  are  astute  observers  of  character;  and  the 
circumstances  and  appearance  of  the  applicant,  together  with 
information  derived  by  subtle  questions,  have  much  to  do  in 
each  case  in  determining  the  nature  of  the  response.  The 
eight  characters  not  only  form  the  basis  for  deciding  the  for- 
tunes of  an  individual  at  the  time  when  the  divination  is 
sought,  but  for  any  number  of  years  in  the  future.  The  for- 
tunes of  any  subsequent  year  are  supposed  to  be  decided  by 
the  question  whether  the  characters  representing  that  year 
have  a propitious  or  unpropitious  connection  with  the  leading 
character  of  a man’s  life.  Thus  it  is  often  remarked  that  such 
and  such  years  will  be  difficult  to  pass.  The  minute  details 
of  this  kind  of  soothsaying  are  presented  in  a work  of  four 
volumes,  entitled  “ Tsz  ping  yuen  hair 

Divination  is  also  practiced,  by  means  of  astrology,  in  a 
manner  still  more  intricate.  The  events  of  men’s  lives  are 
supposed  to  be  under  the  influences  of  twenty-eight  stars,  each 
of  which  is  an  object  of  worship.  In  telling  fortunes  by  this 
method,  a representation  on  paper  of  a man’s  horoscope  is 
prepared  for  each  individual  applicant.  It  has,  first,  a circular 
map  or  table,  on  the  periphery  of  which  are  arranged  the 
twenty-eight  stars,  in  longer  or  shorter  segments,  to  which 
they  are  severally  assigned.  The  eight  characters  above  de- 
scribed determine  under  the  influences  of  what  particular  star 
an  individual’s  life  begins.  Starting  from  this  point,  the  life 
is  supposed  to  revolve  in  this  fixed  circle,  passing,  in  regular 
succession,  under  different  and  varying  stellar  influences. 
The  length  of  time  during  which  one’s  life  is  under  the  influ- 
ence of  any  particular  star,  is  ascertained  by  a computation 


SUPERSTITIONS  OF  THE  RULING  CLASSES.  187 


based  upon  the  Chinese  festivals.  It  would  be  as  useless  as  it 
is  difficult  to  attempt  to  give  a minute  account  of  this  kind  of 
divination.  It  commands  the  confidence  of  the  people  more, 
perhaps,  than  any  other,  either  because  it  is  more  mysterious, 
or  because  of  the  natural  disposition  of  mankind  to  connect 
their  destinies  with  the  influences  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  It 
is  supposed  by  some,  and  not  without  reason,  that  the  sciences 
of  astrology  and  alchemy  originated  in  China,  and  were  after- 
ward introduced  into  the  West  from  China  by  the  Arabs. 
But  to  return  to  our  subject.  By  referring  to  different 
tables,  and  going  through  long  computations,  the  circular  ta- 
ble is  completed,  and  a greater  or  less  amount  of  vague  and 
wordy  explanations  is  appended.  The  divination  may  be  for 
one,  or  for  a number  of  years.  It  may  give  a general  repre- 
sentation of  the  fortunes  of  a year,  or  particular  accounts  of 
each  month,  or  even  of  each  day.  When  the  period  is  long, 
and  the  divination  minute,  the  written  document  becomes  vo- 
luminous, and  can  sometimes  only  be  obtained  at  a cost  of 
several  dollars. 

The  superstitions  of  the  people  respecting  the  influences  of 
the  stars  may  be  further  illustrated  by  a communication  from 
the  chief  magistrate  in  Ningpo,  dated  April  11th,  1850,  ad- 
dressed to  the  British  Consul,  and  having  reference  to  the 
purchase  of  a building  site  in  the  city  by  foreigners.  The 
spot  of  ground  in  question  is  occupied  by  a heap  of  ruins, 
said  to  be  the  remains  of  houses  which  were  burned,  with 
their  occupants,  about  four  hundred  years  ago ; since  which 
time  no  one  has  dared  to  build  on  it,  for  fear  of  the  spirits 
which  are  supposed  to  secrete  themselves  in  its  heaps  of  rub- 
bish. The  Chinese  officer,  after  having  painted  in  fearful 
colors  the  inconveniences  resulting  from  living  in  a place 
haunted  by  spectres,  and  made  dismal  by  horrid  sounds  of 
shrieks  and  groans,  often  heard  in  the  silence  of  the  night, 
proceeds  as  follows : “ On  the  other  hand,  an  examination  of 
the  astronomical  tables  shows  that  the  baneful  star,  directing 
its  noxious  influences  to  places  and  things,  points  out  for  this 


183 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


year  the  two  astronomical  characters  mow  and  Tci,  meaning 
centre,  or  middle  ; thereby  denoting  that  all  places  centrically 
situated  will  be  unlucky  this  year.  This  spot  being  almost 
in  the  centre  of  the  city,  it  is  apprehended  that  any  important 
changes  made  on  it,  or  any  removal  of  earth  from  it  during 
the  present  year,  would  give  rise  to  all  sorts  of  objections  on 
the  part  of  the  people.” 

A class  of  blind  fortune-tellers  may  be  continually  seen  in 
the  streets  of  Ningpo,  led  by  an  attendant,  and  giving  notice 
of  their  approach  by  playing  lively  airs  on  a kind  of  guitar  of 
three  strings.  They  gain  from  oral  instructions  a superficial 
knowledge  of  the  general  principles  described  above,  and  prac- 
tice some  of  the  most  simple  methods  prescribed  in  works  on 
fortune-telling.  They  are  great  gossips,  become  familiarly  ac- 
quainted by  mutual  consultations  with  the  neighborhoods  in 
which  they  carry  on  their  business,  and  are  particularly  skill- 
ed in  eliciting  facts  by  indirect  questions,  and  delivering  their 
responses  in  ambiguous  language.  They  make  their  disclos- 
ures in  a chanting  tone,  with  a musical  accompaniment  on 
their  instruments.  They  find  the  women  their  most  success- 
ful dupes.  Their  services  may  be  secured  for  eighteen  or 
twenty  cash — less  than  two  cents. 

Closely  connected  with  the  above  methods  of  fortune-tell- 
ing, there  is  the  universal  practice  of  “ comparing  the  six  char- 
acters,” with  reference  to  marriage  contracts.  This  is  a sim- 
,ple  process,  and  may  be  attended  to  by  any  of  the  classes  of 
fortune-tellers  above  described.  The  six  characters  are  those 
which  represent  the  year,  month,  and  day  of  one’s  birth.  Be- 
fore a marriage  contract  is  entered  into,  these  characters  of  the 
female  in  question  must  be  handed  to  the  friends  of  the  male 
party.  They  are  carefully  examined,  to  see  whether  they  are 
propitious,  in  themselves  considered,  and  particularly  whether 
they  agree  or  clash  with  the  characters  of  the  other  party. 
Deception  is  often  practiced  in  these  cases,  and  false  or  sub- 
stituted characters  are  perhaps  more  frequently  sent  than  the 
true. 


VARIOUS  MODES  OF  FORTUNE-TELLING. 


189 


In  addition  to  the  modes  of  fortune-telling  which  have  been 
noticed,  and  which  are  regarded  as  the  most  respectable  and 
successful,  a variety  of  others  might  be  mentioned,  which, 
though  common,  are  regarded  as  of  little  importance.  One 
method  is  carried  on  by  means 
of  birds,  which  are  trained  to 
select  strips  of  paper  contain- 
ing a few  words  of  good  or  evil 
import.  Snakes  and  turtles  are 
used  much  in  the  same  way, 
the  direction  of  their  heads  in- 
dicating which  piece  of  paper 
is  to  be  selected. 

A class  of  men  gain  a liveli- 
hood by  gratifying  the  curiosi- 
ty of  those  who  wish  to  know 
who  and  what  they  were  in  a 
previous  state  of  existence,  and 
what  they  are  to  be  in  a suc- 
ceeding one.  This  is  done  by 
means  of  the  map  or  table  of 
the  three  lives.  The  applicant 

x A FORTUNE-TELLING  BY  MEANS  OF  A BIRD 

is  required  to  state  his  name  and  slips  of  paper. 

and  the  time  of  his  birth,  and,  the  leading  facts  of  his  present 
life  being  known,  he  is  informed  what  were  Jus  name,  occupa- 
tion, and  place  of  residence  in  the  past  life,  and  what  they  are 
to  be  in  the  next.  It  seems  to  afford  a kind  of  satisfaction  to 
persons  who  are  miserable  in  this  life  to  be  told  that  they  have 
been  persons  of  wealth  and  high  position  in  a previous  state, 
or  are  to  be  in  a future  one.  This  mode  of  revealing  past  and 
future  events  has  the  advantage  that  its  statements  can  not  be 


disproved.  It  may  be  said,  however,  with  reference  to  the  oth- 
er modes  of  divination  above  mentioned,  that  when  the  event 
does  not  correspond  to  the  prediction,  it  is  still  insisted  upon, 
that  what  was  foretold  is  what  would  have  occurred  in  the 
natural  course  of  things ; and  that  the  seeming  failure  is  due 


190 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


to  an  unusual  amount  of  guilt  bringing  its  necessary  reward 
of  evil,  on  the  one  hand,  or  a fund  of  merit  producing  unex- 
pected fortune,  on  the  other.  The  guilt  or  merit  may  be  in 
consequence  of  actions  performed  either  in  the  present  or  pre- 
vious life. 

The  manner  of  deriving  responses  from  the  gods,  and  of  ob- 
taining a knowledge  of  the  unseen  world  by  means  of  necro- 
mancy, have  been  described  in  the  previous  chapter. 

Physiognomy  presents  another  and  distinct  mode  of  arriv- 
ing at  a knowledge  of  a person’s  character  and  future  history, 
and  several  extensive  treatises  have  been  written  on  this  sub- 
ject by  the  Chinese.  This  art,  as  it  is  now  practiced  in  China, 
bears  no  slight  resemblance  to  Western  phrenology.  Regard 
is  had  to  the  general  contour  of  the  head,  the  different  bumps 
or  developments,  and  the  complexion.  Various  plates  repre- 
sent, with  great  minuteness,  the  divisions  of  the  head,  with 
their  inherent  qualities.  With  this  art  is  also  connected  the 
kindred  art  of  palmistry.  Men  have  the  left  hand  examined, 
women  the  right.  Different  parts  of  the  head  are  also  sup- 
posed to  have  a certain  connection  with  the  “ eight  diagrams,” 
and  one  part,  or  diagram,  is  regarded  as  having  a controlling 
influence  over  an  individual’s  life  at  one  period,  and  another  at 
another.  Closely  connected  with  the  practice  of  physiognomy 
is  that  of  feeling  of  the  bones  of  the  body,  by  doing  Avhich  it 
is  supposed  that  Xhe  character  and  future  destinies  of  an  indi- 
vidual may  be  determined.  Not  only  are  the  outward  features 
of  men  believed  to  be  indicative  of  their  future  destiny,  but  also 
the  forms  and  features  of  idols  and  graven  images.  Before 
they  have  been  taken  from  the  shop  of  the  artisan,  persons 
professing  a knowledge  of  this  art  predict  which  will  acquire 
the  greatest  celebrity,  and  draw  the  greatest  number  of  wor- 
shipers to  its  shrine. 

Another  practice  designed  to  insure  success  and  good  for- 
tune is  that  of  choosing  lucky  days.  This  is  sometimes  done 
by  consulting  the  almanac,  in  which  the  character  of  each  day 
is  marked.  In  more  important  matters,  however,  a more  par- 


CUSTOM  OF  CHOOSING  LUCKY  DAYS. 


191 


ticular  examination  is  necessary ; *ancl  a person  wishing  to 
commence  any  work,  or  enterprise,  under  favorable  auspices, 
repairs  to  the  shop  of  a professional  day-chooser.  These 
shops  are  numerous,  and,  in  passing  through  the  street,  you 
may  always  see  the  grave  day-prophet,  with  pen  in  hand,  sur- 
rounded by  his  numerous  city  and  country  customers.  The 
characters  of  days  are  determined  by  the  stars  which  are  sup- 
posed to  preside  over  them.  Sometimes  a day  is  under  the 
combined  influences  of  different  stars,  prosperous  and  adverse. 
It  is  necessary,  in  such  cases,  to  determine  what  influences 
predominate,  and  to  examine  the  relation  of  particular  stars 
to  particular  objects  and  enterprises.  In  commencing  busi- 
ness, opening  a school,  building  a house,  fixing  a wedding-day, 
or  in  engaging  in  any  thing  of  great  importance,  the  choosing 
of  a lucky  day  is  regarded  a matter  by  no  means  to  be  neg- 
lected. If  a school  is  opened  under  an  unfavorable  star,  it  is 
believed  that  sickness  will  prevail  in  it,  endangering  the  lives 
of  pupils  and  teacher.  If  a person  undertakes  a journey 
under  a particular  star,  he  is  in  danger  of  not  being  permitted 
to  return  home  again.  Nothing  strikes  the  attention  of  an 
observer  so  much  on  lucky  days  as  the  large  number  of  bri- 
dal chairs,  with  their  accompanying  retinue  and  music,  which 
on  these  days  may  be  seen  passing  in  every  direction  through 
the  streets,  and  through  the  country. 

The  fact  of  a person’s  being  born  on  an  unlucky  day  is  re- 
garded as  having  an  unfavorable  influence  on  his  whole  life, 
and  is  taken  into  account  in  divination  by  the  different  meth- 
ods. A girl  born  under  the  star  denominated  in  colloquial 
the  “Broom  Star”  is  looked  upon  with  suspicion:  and  it  is 
generally  supposed  that  the  family  which  receives  her  as  a 
bride  will  have  their  house  swept  clean  of  its  luck.  A woman 
born  nnder  the  star  Hien-chi  is  supposed  to  be  in  particular 
danger  of  dying  in  child-bed.  The  manner  in  which  the  dan- 
ger is  averted  is  singular.  Mistaking  the  first  character  of 
the  name  for  another  of  the  same  sound,  meaning  salt , they 
make  it  to  mean  Salt  Lake,  and  have  some  vague  suspicion  of 


192 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


evil  connected  with  it.  Some  time  before  the  confinement  of 
the  unfortunate  individual,  a quantity  of  salt  is  secretly 
thrown  by  one  of  her  friends  into  a jar  of  water  used  by 
the  family  ; and  if  a person,  not  knowing  what  has  happened, 
tastes  of  the  water,  and  remarks  upon  its  saltness,  the  spell  of 
the  Salt  Lake  is  broken.  This  may  serve  as  a specimen  of  a 
large  number  of  tricks,  or  charms,  which  are  resorted  to  under 
different  circumstances  to  avert  anticipated  evil. 

The  particular  year  in  which  a person  is  born  has  also 
much  to  do  in  directing  his  steps  during  future  life.  Each 
of  the  twelve  characters  used  in  reckoning  time  is  associated 
with  some  animal.  Hence  a person,  according  to  the  charac- 
ter which  occurs  in  the  year  when  he  was  born,  is  said  to  have 
been  born  under  the  rat,  ox,  tiger,  rabbit,  etc.  A person  born 
under  a particular  character,  or  animal,  must  not  engage  in 
any  important  work  or  public  ceremony  on  days  the  names 
of  which  contain  a character  clashing  with  the  character  oc- 
curring in  his  birth-year.  Exceptions  are  made  allowing  per- 
sons to  attend  the  funerals  of  their  relatives,  when  they 
would  otherwise  be  excluded  by  this  rule.  On  days  of  public 
meetings,  placards  are  often  posted  by  officers,  in  conspicuous 
places,  designating  the  class  of  persons  whose  horoscope  ren- 
ders, it  inauspicious  for  them  to  be  present,  and  requesting 
them  to  stay  at  home. 

Passing  over  other  superstitions  of  a similar  kind,  that  of 
seeking  directions  and  revelations  in  dreams  is  worthy  of  spe- 
cial notice.  The  deities  of  some  few  temples  have  acquired 
great  celebrity  by  giving  important  intimations  to  their  wor- 
shipers in  visions  of  the  night.  On  oertain  days,  generally  the 
last  great  festival  of  the  year,  these  temples  are  visited  by  a 
large  concourse  of  people,  of  whom  some  come  from  a great 
distance.  Their  object  is,  for  the  most  part,  to  seek  direction 
with  reference  to  improving  their  condition  in  life  by  a 
change  of  occupation  at  the  beginning  of  the  coming  year. 
They  arrive  at  the  temple  before  night,  burn  incense,  make 
prostrations,  and  present  their  prayers  before  the  gods,  and 


SEEKING  DREAMS  IN  IDOL  TEMPLES.  198 

then  lie  down  in  some  part  of  the  temple,  generally  on  the 
cold  floor,  to  wait  for  a dream.  Those  who  are  so  fortunate 
as  'to  have  one,  put  such  an  interpretation  upon  it  as  to  suit 
their  own  fancies  and  inclinations ; some  receive  as  a dream 
the  vagaries  of  their  own  imaginations,  which  are  sure  to  be 
busy  about  the  absorbing  matter  which  engages  their  atten- 
tion ; and  some,  less  credulous  and  imaginative,  are  obliged  to 
go  home  dreamless  and  disappointed.  To  avoid  the  incon- 
veniences of  going  to  a remote  temple,  a person  sometimes 
makes  his  bed  in  the  kitchen,  to  beg  a dream  of  the  Kitchen 
God. 

The  above  superstitions  appear  in  themselves  too  frivolous 
and  unreasonable  to  engage  our  serious  attention.  They  ac- 
quire their  interest' and  importance  from  the  fact  that  they  are 
not  curious  antiquities,  but  present  realities ; they  are  not  theo- 
retical speculations  confined  to  the  few,  but  practical  beliefs 
of  universal  prevalence,  swaying  the  minds  of  millions,  and 
presenting  a most  serious  obstacle  to  the  reception  of  the 
truth.  These  beliefs  are  nicely  adapted  to  the  hopes  and 
fears  of  man’s  nature,  and  are  clung  to  with  great  tenacity 
by  those  whose  reason  has  been  moulded  and  enslaved  by 
them.  Fate  and  a thousand  inferior  deities  take  the  place  of 
an  infinite  and  omnipresent  God,  and  render  it  difficult  for  the 
mind  even  to  conceive  of  his  universal  sovereignty  and  over- 
ruling providence. 


I 


194 


CHINA  .AND  THE  CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THE  LANGUAGES  OF  CHINA. 

The  Want  of  Analogy  between  the  Chinese  and  other  Languages. — 
Each  Word  represented  by  a separate  Character. — The  Language  not 
Hieroglyphic.— The  whole  Number  of  Characters. — The  Language  Mon- 
osyllabic.— The  written  Language  unintelligible  to  the  Ear,  and  not 
capable  of  being  used  as  a spoken  Language. — An'  Explanation  of  this 
Fact. — Tones  and  Aspirates. — Explanation  of  apparent  Inconsistencies. 
— The  spoken  Languages  of  China,  and  their  Relations  to  the  written. 
— The  Number  of  the  spoken  Languages  or  Dialects,  and  the  Extent  to 
which  they  differ. — In  what  these  Differences  consist. — More  numerous 
in  the  South  than  in  the  North. — Description  of  the  Mandarin,  or  Court 
Dialect. — Chinese  Mode  of  printing. — “How  much  Time  does  it  re- 
quire to  learn  the  Chinese  Language?” — “What  Proportion  of  the 
Population  can  read  ?” — Excellences  and  Defects  of  the  Language. 

I approach  the  task  of  writing  on  the  languages  of  China 
with  no  small  degree  of  reluctance  and  embarrassment,  on  ac- 
count of  the  great  difficulty  of  making  the  subject  intelligible 
to  those  who  have  not  made  it  a special  study.  This  diffi- 
culty arises  from  an  utter  want  of  correspondence  or  analogy 
between  this  language  and  others  with  which  we  are  famil- 
iar— a fact  which  furnishes  a striking  evidence  of  the  ex- 
treme isolation  of  the  Chinese  race  from  the  other  nations 
of  the  world. 

The  written  language  contains  no  alphabet,  but  each  word 
has  its  own  independent  representation  or  character,  so  that 
there  are  as  many  characters  as  words.  In  the  first  forma- 
tion of  the  written  language,  which  must  have  been  at  a 
very  early  period,  these  characters  seem  to  have  been  ideo- 
graphic, and  must  have  been  very  few  : for  instance,  (£)  stood 
for  the  sun,  J)  for  the  moon,  etc.  The  present  forms  of  these 
characters  are  jjj  and  jjj. 


FORMATION  OF  CHINESE  CHARACTERS. 


195 


The  impossibility  of  inventing  forms  which  would  natu- 
rally suggest  every  object  in  nature  and  every  idea  of  the 
mind,  necessitated  the  use  of  characters  more  or  less  arbi- 
trary: for  instance,  J\^jin,  man;  puh,  not ; to,  great; 

nyu , woman.  Some  of  the  characters  are  simple  like  the 
preceding,  but  by  far  the  greater  part  are  compounded  of 
simple  characters : as  ^ si,  to  wash ; die,  to  point.  Si 
is  compounded  of  shwuy,  water,  on  the  left,  and  sin,  before, 
on  the  right;  die  is  compounded  of  sheo,  hand,  on  the  left, 
and  die,  meaning  or  intention,  on  the  right.  In  both  these 
characters,  as  may  be  readily  seen,  the  left  part  suggests  the 
meaning,  and  the  right  the  sound,  and  many  combinations 
are  similarly  formed.  The  simple  character  heart,  for  in- 
stance, is  a component  part  of  many  others  representing  fac- 
ulties and  affections  of  the  mind.  The  character  man  is  con- 
nected with  others  representing  the  different  dispositions  and 
relations  of  man,  and  so  on  indefinitely,  the  different  component 
parts  giving  some  hint  or  clew  to  the  discovery  of  the  mean- 
ing, and  perhaps  also  of  the  sound.  This  is  not  always  nor 
generally  the  case,  however ; for  many  of  the  combinations 
seem  entirely  arbitrary,  as  tali,  to  answer  or  respond ; 
being  made  up  of  chuh,  bamboo,  and  hoh,  to  unite ; also  j|| 
yi,  righteousness  or  uprightness,  which  is  composed  of  jin, 
man,  on  the  left-hand  side,  and  on  the  right-hand  yang,  sheep, 
on  the  top,  and  wo,  I,  on  the  bottom. 

I have  referred  thus  particularly  to  the  formation  of  char- 
acters, so  as  to  correct  two  very  common  mistakes,  both  tend- 
ing to  produce  the  impression  that  the  written  language  is 
much  easier  of  acquisition  than  it  really  is.  The  first  is,  that 
the  language,  as  now  written,  may  be  properly  called  ideo- 
graphic. The  fact  is,  on  the  contrary,  that  even  the  few 
characters  which  seem  to  have  been  such  at  first  do  not,  in 
their  present  forms,  indicate  with  any  certainty  the  object 
represented.  Most  of  the  simple  characters  are,  or  seem  to 
be,  entirely  arbitrary;  and  the  compound  characters,  which 
give  some  intimation  of  their  meaning,  do  it  very  vaguely 


196 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


and  indefinitely.  The  other  mistake  is  that  of  supposing, 
that  though  the  language  has  no  alphabet,  the  elementary 
characters  unite  together,  according  to  a system  governed  by 
fixed  rules,  and  affording  advantages  tantamount  or,  at  least, 
similar  to  those  of  an  alphabet,  which  is  by  no  means  the 
case.  The  mistake,  however,  has  a slight  foundation  in  fact, 
and  is  an  error  only  in  degree. 

The  whole  number  of  characters  in  the  Imperial  Dictiona- 
ry of  the  Emperor  Kang-hi,  which  is  complete  in  six  large 
volumes,  is  about  40,000 ; most  of  these,  however,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  larger  proportion  of  words  in  our  own  large 
dictionaries,  are  obsolete  forms,  or  characters  very  seldom 
used.  From  five  to  seven  thousand  comprise  all  those  in  or- 
dinary use.  These  characters  are  unvarying  in  their  forms, 
and  admit  of  no  inflections  of  any  kind  whatever.  Distinc- 
tions of  number,  tense,  etc.,  are  made  by  the  use  of  additional 
characters. 

The  languages  of  China,  whether  written  or  spoken,  are 
strictly  monosyllabic ; that  is,  every  syllable  is  a distinct  word 
by  itself.  Occasionally  two  or  more  characters  are  used  to- 
gether as  a compound  word ; but  they  are  still  seen  to  be  dis- 
tinct monosyllables  as,  in  our  language,  farm-house , foot- 
stool, etc. 

It  is  a striking  peculiarity  of  the  written  or  classical 
language,  that  it  is  not  understpod  as  spoken.  By  this  it  is 
not  meant  that  it  has  fallen  into  disuse  as  a spoken  language, 
but  that  it  is  not  capable  of  being  used  as  a medium  of  oral 
communication  even  by  the  learned  who  are  familiar  with  it. 
It  speaks  to  the  eye,  and  not  to  the  ear.  The  Scriptures,  or 
any  other  book,  or  a letter,  accurately  read  to  a person  unac- 
quainted with  its  contents,  though  perfectly  familiar  with  the 
language  in  which  it  is  written,  would  be  almost,  if  not  entirely, 
unintelligible.  This  fact  may  be  best  explained  by  referring 
to  the  monosyllabic  character  of  this  language.  The  number 
of  monosyllables  which  it  is  possible  to  form  with  the  vocal 
organs  or  spell  with  an  alphabet  is  necessarily  limited.  In 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  THE  WRITTEN  LANGUAGE.  197 


China  the  number  used  in  any  given  place  is  about  five  hun- 
dred, while  the  number  of  characters  in  ordinary  use  is  not 
far  from  five  thousand.  We  have  then  only  one-tentli  as  many 
monosyllabic  sounds  as  characters,  and,  on  an  average,  about 
ten  different  characters  must  be  called  by  the  same  name  or 
sound.  There  are  then  so  many  characters  which  have  the 
same  name,  that  hearing  one  pronounced  does  not  indicate 
definitely  what  particular  character  is  meant.  Suppose  a 
person  hearing  read  the  first  chapter  of  the  Gospel  of  John, 
the  first  sentence  of  which  is  “ Yiin  s yiu  tcio ,”  the  question 
arises  in  the  mind  of  the  listener,  which  yun  of  many  is  it. 
And  so  with  reference  to  the  other  characters ; and  as  they 
are  rapidly  pronounced  one  after  another,  the  mind  is  lost  in 
a maze  of  uncertainty.  We  have  analogies  in  our  own  lan- 
guage of  the  same  sound,  belonging  to  entirely  different 
words:  for  instance,  write,  rite,  right,  wright ; also,  sound,  a 
noise ; sound,  a body  of  water,  and  sound,  to  fathom.  In  the 
former  illustration,  the  different  words,  though  pronounced 
the  same,  are  written  differently,  which  is  always  the  case  in 
Chinese ; in  the  latter  illustration,  the  words  are  both  writ- 
ten and  pronounced  alike.  In  our  language,  these  monopho- 
nous  words  are  so  few  that  the  other  words  in  the  sentence 
clearly  fix  the  meaning  ; but  what  is  exceptional  with  us  is 
general  with  the  Chinese. 

The  indefiniteness  in  distinguishing  monosyllabic  words 
is  diminished  much,  though  by  no  means  fully  obviated,  by 
the  introduction  of  tones  and  aspirates.  Thus,  four  words  spell- 
ed precisely  alike,  for  instance,  chang,  chang,  chang,  ehang, 
may,  by  being  uttered  Avith  the  different  tones  wThich  belong 
to  them  respectively,  be  made  as  distinct  and  intelligible  to  a 
Chinaman’s  ear  as  if  they  were  differently  spelled  and  pro- 
nounced. To  illustrate  the  aspirates : tien,  with  an  aspirate 
(a  slight  h betAveen  the  t and  i ),  means  heaven ; without  it, 
a dot ; ting,  with  an  aspirate,  means  to  hear ; Avithout  it,  a 
nail.  These  important  distinctions  belong  both  to  the  Avrit- 
ten  and  the  spoken  languages,  but,  as  stated  before,  they  are 


198 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


not  sufficient  to  make  the  written  language  intelligible  to  the 
ear. 

By  a singular  contrariety  (as  the  Chinese  seem  to  be  our 
antipodes  in  almost  every  thing),  while  we,  in  reading  to  our- 
selves, seldom  read  aloud,  they  almost  always  do,  notwith- 
standing the  sounds  convey  no  meaning  to  the  ear.  This  cus- 
tom may  be  followed  partly  from  force  of  habit,  having 
studied  in  this  way  in  school,  or  in  order  to  fix  the  attention 
more  closely  by  using  the  voice;  but  is  due  principally,.!  think, 
to  a desire  to  heighten  the  pleasure  of  reading  by  catching 
the  rhythm  of  the  sentences  with  the  ear  while  the  sense  is 
conveyed  to  the  eye. 

But  a reader  may  object,  “Are  not  the  Confucian  Class- 
ics composed  in  the  written  language  of  China  ?”  “ Certain- 
ly.” “ And  do  we  not  hear  that  the  Chinese  quote  these 
classics  orally  in  conversation  ?”  “Yes.”  “ Are  they  intelli- 
gible as  thus  quoted  ?”  “ Most  certainly.”  “ Then  is  not  this 
inconsistent  with  what  lias  just  been  stated,  that  the  language 
can  not  be  understood  as  heard  ?”  This  would  seem  contra- 
dictory in  English , but  is  not  in  Chinese.  A new  or  unfa- 
miliar composition  heard  for  the  first  time  is  unintelligible ; 
but  a familiar  one,  and  especially  one  which  has  been  commit- 
ted to  memory,  is  recognized  at  once,  and  each  word  or  sound 
becomes  definite,  and  brings  up  to  the  mind’s  eye  the  charac- 
ter which  it  represents.  The  sounds  would  not  be  recognized 
separately,  or  in  new  combinations,  but  they  are  in  old  or  fa- 
miliar connections  and  associations.  The  first  sentence  of  the 
first  chapter  of  John,  which  has  been  quoted,  would  be  recog- 
nized by  the  ear  of  every  Chinese  Christian  who  reads  his 
Bible,  because  he  has  become  acquainted  with  them  as  thus 
associated,  while  he  has  probably  never  heard  them  pro- 
nounced together,  and  in  the  same  order,  in  any  other  compo- 
sition. Illiterate  Chinese  who  can  not  read  at  all  will  also 
quote  the  classics  intelligibly,  j ust  as  one  may  use  an  occa- 
sional word  or  sentence  of  French  without  having  ever  studied 
that  language. 


OTHER  CHARACTERISTICS  EXPLAINED. 


199 


It  may  be  objected  again,  “ If,  as  is  frequently  said,  the  lan- 
guage speaks  to  the  eye,  bow  is  it  that  it  is  not  ideograph- 
ic ?”  The  answer  to  this  question  will  perhaps  serve  to  add 
clearness  to  the  answer  to  the  previous  one.  For  want  of  a 
better,  I will  make  use  of  the  following  homely  illustration  : “ I 
wish  you  to  imitate  the  examples  of  Smith,  Jones,  and  Brown.” 
ISTow  the  hearing  of  this  sentence  would  not  bring  before  the 
mind  the  particular  individuals  of  those  numerous  families 
designated,  nor,  as  a matter  of  consequence,  the  traits  of  char- 
acter to  be  imitated,  any  more  than  three  monosyllabic  Chinese 
sounds  would  designate  the  particular  characters  which  they 
represent.  Suppose  these  individuals  were  brought  before 
you  ; if  they  wTere  perfect  strangers,  you  could  not,  by  merely 
looking  at  them,  tell  with  any  certainty  either  their  individual 
names  or  peculiarities.  Their  faces  would  probably  be  just 
about  as  ideographic  as  the  Chinese  characters.  You  might 
think  that,  from  some  fancied  family  resemblance,  you  were 
able  to  guess  the  name  of  one  or  more  of  them,  and,  from  the 
general  appearance  of  another,  you  might  learn  something  of 
his  probable  character  and  peculiarities,  but  you  would  be  very 
apt  to  make  mistakes.  If,  however,  you  were  familiarly  ac- 
quainted with  these  men,  a sight  of  them  would  bring  up  to 
the  mind,  by  association,  all  that  you  knew  of  them.  So  of 
Chinese  characters : to  one  who  has  studied  and  become  ac- 
quainted with  them  individually,  they  convey  to  the  eye  a 
great  deal ; to  those  who  have  not,  little  or  nothing. 

The  spoken  languages  of  China  are  various,  and  they  all  dif- 
fer widely  from  the  written,  as  might  be  necessarily  inferred, 
from  what  has  been  said  above.  They  resemble  the  written  lan- 
guage, inasmuch  as  the  great  proportion  of  words,  and  also 
many  of  the  idioms,  or  constructions,  are  the  same  in  both. 
They  differ  principally  in  this,  that  the  spoken  languages  are 
less  compact,  using  very  often  two  words  for  one  in  the  written. 
It  is  in  a great  measure,  by  this  means,  that  the  indefinite  words 
of  the  written  language  become  clear  and  specific  in  the  spoken. 
The  character  ^ ming , meaning  people,  would  be  unintelligi- 


200 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


ble,  as  heard  pronounced,  but  the  colloquial  for  people,  viz., pah- 
sing,  could  hardly  be  mistaken.  It  could  not  be  determined  by 
the  ear  whether  the  monosyllable  hung  represented  the  charac- 
ter ^ hung, fair  or  just,  yjy  hung,  a laborer,^  hung,  to  attack, 
Xfi  hung,  merit,  ^ hung,  respectful,  hung,  to  provide,  or 
some  one  of  several  other  characters,  all  of  which  have  pre- 
cisely the  same  pronunciation  and  tone.  But  the  colloquial 
words  hung-tao,  just,  hung-tsiang,  laborer, hung-hieh,  to  attack, 
hung-lao,  merit,  hung-hin , respectful,  hung-yin,  to  provide  for, 
etc.,  are  recognized  by  the  ear  at  once.  The  former  illustration 
is  an  example  of  substituting  a different  compound  word  in 
the  vernacular  for  the  single  one  in  the  written  language, pah- 
sing  for  ming ; the  latter  illustration  presents  the  same  words 
in  the  two  different  forms,  a simple  monosyllable  in  the  written 
language,  and  the  same  in  combination  with  another  one  in  the 
vernacular. 

The  other  points  of  difference  between  the  written  and 
spoken  languages  are  different  pronouns  and  particles  (which, 
though  comparatively  few  in  number,  are  in  constant  use),  and 
variations  in  constructions,  idioms,  and  pronunciations. 

The  relations  subsisting  between  the  written  and  spoken 
languages  are  similar,  in  many  respects,  to  those  between  the 
Latin  and  the  spoken  languages  of  Europe  a few  hundred  years 
ago.  The  Latin  had  many  points  of  resemblance  with  these 
spoken  languages,  and  was  made  use  of  to  enrich  them  all. 
The  Latin  was  understood  by  scholars  only.  It  was  the  com- 
mon medium  of  communication  between  the  learned,  who  spoke 
different  vernacular  languages,  while  the  illiterate  had  no  com- 
mon medium  of  communication.  The  analogy  referred  to 
holds  in  all  these  points. 

The  written  language  of  China  is  understood  by  the 
learned,  not  only  of  the  whole  Chinese  Emjnre,  but  also  of 
Japan,  Loo-Choo,  Corea,  Manchuria,  and  Cochin  China ; and 
through  it  a far  larger  proportion  of  the  human  race  can  be 
reached  and  influenced  than  through  any  other  language  of 
the  world.  When  illiterate  men  wish  to  communicate  by  let- 


DIVERSITY  OF  THE  SPOKEN  LANGUAGES. 


201 


ter  with  friends  in  other  provinces,  they  go  to  a literary  ac- 
quaintance or  to  the  village  school-teacher,  and  communicate 
their  wishes  to  him  in  their  vernacular.  The  scholar,  recast- 
ing the  ideas  in  a new  form,  composes  the  letter  in  the  Avrit- 
ten  language.  When  it  reaches  its  destination,  the  person 
Avho  receives  it,  if  he  is  not  a scholar,  engages  some  one  else 
who  is  able  to  do  it  to  translate  the  letter  into  his  vernacular. 
In  this  way  persons  communicate  with  each  other  who  can 
not  write  at  all,  and  who  could  not  converse  intelligibly,  were 
they  together. 

With  reference  to  the  variations  of  the  spoken  languages 
and  their  relations  to  each  other,  somewhat  different  repre- 
sentations have  been  made.  They  are  often  spoken  of  as  dif- 
ferent dialects  or  variations  of  the  same  language.  This  is 
true  in  a degree,  but,  without  explanation  and  limitation,  is 
calculated  to  mislead  most  readers,  as  they  may,  with  equal 
propriety,  be  spoken  of  as  different  languages.  In  the  prov- 
ince of  Shantung,  a good  scholar  of  that  region,  after  listening 
some  time,  and  intently,  to  a conversation  between  myself  and 
a Ningpo  man  in  the  Ningpo  dialect,  asked  me  if  we  were 
speaking  English,  not  recognizing  a single  familiar  syllable  or 
sound.  Natives  from  the  Northern  and  Southern  provinces 
are  as  unable  to  communicate  with  each  other  in  their  vernac- 
ulars as  an  Englishman  would  be  to  communicate  Avith  a Ger- 
man or  a Spaniard.  Visiting  the  southern  part  of  China,  fa- 
miliarly acquainted  Avith  the  Ningpo  dialect  and  the  Court 
dialect,  in  listening  to  long  conversations  and  to  sermons  in 
the  Amoy  dialect,  I was  not  able  to  detect  at  first  a single 
idea  or  word.  In  Canton  I could  catch  the  general  drift  of 
sermons,  though  I could  distinguish  but  a very  few  words. 

An  estimation  of  the  number  of  different  spoken  languages 
or  dialects  in  China  will  depend,  of  course,  upon  the  degree 
of  divergence  or  unintelligibility  which  shall  be  regarded  suf- 
ficient to  constitute  a different  language.  In  most  cases,  the 
vernaculars  shade  off  into  each  other  by  almost  imperceptible 
gradations.  In  travelling  twenty  or  thirty  miles  in  the  south 

I 2 


202 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


of  China,  you  may  notice  slight  changes  in  the  speech  of  the 
common  people.  In  travelling  eighty  or  one  hundred  miles, 
the  changes  are  more  marked,  and  oral  communication  be- 
comes difficult.  In  many  directions,  a journey  of  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  or  two  hundred  miles  will  bring  you  into  a re- 
gion where  your  vernacular  is  almost  useless,  except  as  you 
may  happen  to  find  a person  who  has  lived  in  the  locality 
where  it  is  spoken,  and  will  act  as  your  interpreter. 

The  variations  of  these  dialects  consist  in  the  use  of  differ- 
ent' pronouns  and  particles,  and  differences  of  words  and  ex- 
pressions, pronunciations  and  tones.  Though  at  first  a new 
dialect,  when  heard  spoken  rapidly,  seems  entirely  different, 
a little  attention  and  study  will  bring  to  light  familiar  words 
and  expressions  in  new  forms,  and  the  transition  from  one 
dialect  to  another  is  easy,  compared  to  the  first  acquisition  of 
any  of  them.  It  is  often  noticed  that  persons  always  speak 
the  first  dialect  which  they  learn  with  greater  accuracy  and 
purity  than  any  acquired  afterward,  as  one  is  apt  to  carry 
peculiarities  of  the  first  into  all  others  which  are  based  upon 
it. 

Variations  of  dialects  take  place  much  more  rapidly  and 
widely  in  some  parts  of  the  country  than  in  others.  A mark- 
ed distinction  in  this  respect  is  seen  between  the  Northern 
and  Southern  provinces,  the  degree  of  variation  being  very 
great  in  the  South,  as  compared  to  the  North.  South  of  the 
River  Yiang-tz  a great  number  of  dialects  is  spoken ; north 
of  the  river,  but  one  general  language,  or  dialect,  with  com- 
paratively unimportant  variations.  Different  dialects,  having 
common  affinities,  may  be  grouped  into  classes  or  families. 
Those  which  are  more  generally  spoken  have  been  reduced  to 
writing,  and  have  their  own  separate  literatures.  Of  these, 
the  Canton,  Fu-chau,  and  the  Northern  or  Court  dialect,  may 
be  particularly  mentioned.  The  most  of  the  dialects  are  not 
written,  have  no  literature,  and  it  is  difficult  to  write  them 
purely  by  means  of  the  characters  used  in  the  written  lan- 
guage, because  many  words  occur  in  the  vernaculars  which 


PECULIARITIES  OF  THE  MANDARIN  DIALECT.  203 


do  not  occur  in  the  written  language,  and,  consequently,  have 
no  character  in  it  to  represent  them. 

The  Court  dialect  is  worthy  of  particular  notice,  since,  as 
before  stated,  it  is  spoken  with  variations  over  nearly  the 
whole  of  Northern  China.  It  has  been  fixed  upon  by  the  gov- 
ernment as  a common  spoken  language,  to  be  learned  by  all  its 
officials,  and  used  in  all  the  yamuns  throughout  the  empire. 
Hence  the  term  Court  dialect.  It  is  also  often  called  by 
foreigners  Mandarin,  which  is,  I believe,  a Portuguese  word, 
from  the  Latin  “ mando ,”  “ to  command.”  The  Chinese  word 
is  Kwaii-liwa , the  “ language  of  officers.”  Many  of  the  ficti- 
tious works  of  China  are  written  in  this  dialect.  On  account 
of  its  prominence  and  importance  as  a written  language,  and 
perhaps  because  Mandarin  books  present  precisely  the  same 
appearance  as  books  in  the  literary  language,  some  suppose 
that  the  Mandarin  and  the  written  language  are  identical ; this 
is  altogether  a mistake.  The  Mandarin  is  simply  one  of  the 
many  spoken  languages  of  China,  and  bears  the  same  relation 
to  the  classical  language,  or  language  of  books,  that  the  other 
spoken  dialects  do.  It  owes  its  prominence  to  the  three  facts 
stated  above,  viz.,  that  it  is  spoken  over  a wider  region  of 
country,  it  is  the  common  medium  of  communication  between 
officials  throughout  the  empire,  and  is  reduced  to  writing  and 
has  an  extensive  literature. 

Many  persons  in  the  United  States  and  England  have  also 
received  the  impression  that  the  Mandarin  dialect  is  a kind 
of  superior  or  more  refined  spoken  language,  used  by  the 
higher  classes  and  scholars  in  contradistinction  to  the  com- 
mon people.  This  is  also  a mistake.  Scholars  and  the  high- 
er class  in  every  part  of  the  empire  speak  the  vernacular  of 
their  own  locality  in  common  with  the  masses,  and  generally 
know  no  other.  When  they  go  to  the  capital  to  attend  the 
examinations,  they  naturally  become  more  or  less  acquainted 
with  it  by  hearing  it  constantly  spoken ; and  when  they  suc- 
ceed in  the  examinations,  and  obtain  official  positions,  they 
are  obliged  to  learn  it  as  the  universal  and  exclusive  medium 


204 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


for  transacting  official  business.  Many  of  the  officers  of 
the  empire  speak  it  very  imperfectly  it  being  corrupted  and 
vitiated  by  their  original  dialects  or  mother-tongues.  Schol- 
ars, men  of  leisure,  and  business  men  and  travellers,  often 
learn  this  dialect  as  an  accomplishment  or  a convenience.  A 
person  acquainted  with  it  will  find  a few  in  almost  every  part 
of  the  empire  with  whom  he  can  communicate ; if  nowhere 
else,  certainly  in  the  yamuns. 

A very  singular-spoken  language,  called  Pigeon-Englisli, 
has  sprung  up  on  the  coast  of  China  during  the  last  thirty 
years,  which  merits  a special  notice,  not  on  account  of  its  char- 
acter or  general  prevalence,  but  because  it  is  the  almost  exclu- 
sive medium  of  communication  between  natives  and  foreigners 
at  the  open  ports.  This  language  has  grown  out  of  the  neces- 
sities of  the  condition  in  which  the  two  races  are  placed,  and 
certainly  nothing  but  extreme  necessity  could  justify  the  use 
of  such  an  uncouth  and  ridiculous  jargon.  Neither  party,  na- 
tives or  foreigners,  has  the  time  or  opportunity  to  learn  the 
language  of  the  other,  but  they  must  communicate  ideas  at 
once.  A compromise  has  been  effected  in  forming  a language 
made  up  mostly  of  English  words  in  a modified  or  corrupted 
form,  with  an  admixture  of  Portuguese  and  Chinese,  wrought 
into  Chinese  idioms.  The  manner  in  which  many  English 
words  are  changed  or  corrupted  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
pigeon  of  “ Pigeon-English.”  This  new  and  peculiar  lan- 
guage is  used  principally  in  carrying  on  business,  and  business 
is  a very  important  word  in  it.  In  asking  the  Chinaman  to 
pronounce  this  word,  he  is  found  utterly  unable  to  do  it,  and 
produces  a sound  which  it  is  difficult  to  catch  or  spell  with 
any  precision,  but  which  somewhat  resembles  the  word  pig- 
eon. So  the  accommodating  foreigner,  finding  that  the  China- 
man can  pronounce  pigeon  with  tolerable  ease  and  accuracy, 
takes  the  liberty  of  giving  the  word  business  the  modified 
form  of  pigeon,  so  that  the  Pigeon-English  is  supply  the  Bus- 
iness-English.  Our  arbitrary  and  artificial  language  is  fur- 
ther simplified,  I believe  (for  I can  not  speak  authoritatively 


THE  CHINESE  ART  OP  PRINTING. 


205 


on  this  subject),  by  making  the  word  my  stand  for  the  differ- 
ent cases  and  numbers  of  the  first  personal  pronoun,  you  for 
the  second,  and  he  for  the  third.  Various  other  liberties 
which  foreigners  take  with  their  mother-tongue  need  not  be 
mentioned.  The  whole  language,  or  dialect,  is  exceedingly 
meagre,  containing,  perhaps,  only  a few  hundred  words.  For- 
eigners learn  to  speak  it  intelligibly  (?)  in  a few  weeks,  and 
fluently  in  a few  months,  and  make  it  answer  all  practical 
purposes.  Natives  seeking  foreign  employ  sometimes  take 
lessons  for  a few  days  of  a native  professor,  who  advertises  to 
teach  “ Red-haired  Talk,”  which  many  of  them  think  is  pure 
English.  Others  take  a position  in  a foreign  establishment, 
in  which  they  only  have  to  do  with  their  own  people,  and  pick 
up  the  language  by  degrees  as  they  have  opportunity.  I saw, 
before  leaving  China,  a translation  into  this  dialect  by  an  En- 
glishman of  the  address  familiar  to  most  school-boys,  “My 
name  is  Norval;  on  the  Grampian  Hills,  my  father  feeds  his 
flock,”  etc. ; a few  sentences  of  the  beginning  of  which  may  be 
given,  by  way  of  illustration,  as  follows  : “ My  name  b’long 
Norval.  Top  side  Keh-lam-pian  hill ; my  fader  chow-chow 
he  sheep.”  Hardly  a word  of  the  next  sentence,  “ A frugal 
swain,  whose  constant  care  is  to  increase  his  store,”  has  any 
equivalent  in  this  poverty-stricken  tongue,  so  a free  transla- 
tions made  : “My  fader  very  small  heartee  man — too  much 
likee  dat  piecie  dolla.” 

A few  words  on  the  Chinese  art  of  printing  may  be  of  in- 
terest to  some  readers.  Every  page  and  character  of  every 
book  is  engraved  on  wooden  blocks  expressly  for  that  book. 
In  other  words,  the  Chinese  do  not  use  movable  metallic  types. 
The  matter  to  be  printed  is  beautifully  written  on  a sheet  of 
the  usual  Chinese  transparent  paper  the  same  in  size  as  a leaf 
of  the  book  to  be  published.  This  sheet  is  pasted,  with  the 
written  side  down,  on  the  block  or  board  to  be  engraved. 
The  engraver  cuts  out  all  the  blank  spots  in  and  around  the 
written  letters,  leaving  them  in  relief  upon  the  board.  An 
impression  taken  from  the  block  will  give,  of  course,  an  exact 


20  G 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


counterpart  of  the  written  sheet.  A block  is  engraved  for 
each  page,  and  the  impressions  are  taken  by  hand,  without 
any  press  or  machinery.  It  would  seem  that  the  introduction 
of  our  art  of  printing  in  China  would  save  a great  deal  of 
time  and  expense.  The  difficulty,  however,  is  that  we  are 
obliged  to  prepare  a font  of  four  or  five  thousand  types  in  the 
Chinese  instead  of  less  than  thirty,  as  in  our  language.  Several 
excellent  fonts  and  printing-presses  have  been  introduced,  but, 
as  yet,  we  can  hardly  say,  on  the  whole,  that  we  have  made 
much  advance  ivpon  the  Chinese  art  of  printing  either  in 
cheapness  or  elegance. 

Chinese  books  are  read  from  the  right  side  of  the  book  or 
page  toward  the  left,  and  from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  a 
page,  in  vertical  instead  of  horizontal  columns. 

The  accompanying  representation  in  parallel  columns  of  the 
different  styles  made  use  of  in  writing  and  printing  Chinese 
characters,  is  taken  from  Williams’s  “Middle  Kingdom.” 
The  sentence  expressed  in  each  column,  character  for  charac- 
ter, is,  “ Writing  has  six  forms,  called  chuen,  called  li,  called 
Tciai,  called  king,  called  tsau,  called  sung .”  I avail  myself  of 
the  explanations  or  descriptions  of  these  various  forms  taken 
from  the  same  work. 

“ The  Chinese  have  six  different  styles  of  writing  d^rac- 
ters,  which. correspond  to  black-letter,  script,  italic,  Romal^tc., 
in  English,  but  are  much  more  unlike  than  these.  The  first  is 
called  chuen  shu,  from  the  name  of  the  person  who  invented  it, 
but  foreigners  usually  call  it  the  seal  character,  from  its  most 
common  use  in  seals  and  ornamental  inscriptions.  It  is  the 
most  ancient  style  of  writing,  next  to  the  picture  hieroglyph- 
ics, and  has  undergone  many  changes  in  the  course  of  ages. 
It  is  studied  by  those  who  cut  seals  in  inscriptions,  but  no 
books  are  ever  printed  in  it. 

“The  second  is  the  li  shu,  or  style  of  official  attendants, 
which  was  introduced  about  the  Christian  era,  as  an  elegant 
style  to  be  employed  in  engrossing  documents.  It  is  now  seen 
in  prefaces  and  formal  inscriptions,  though  to  a small  extent. 


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VARIOUS  FORMS  OF  CHINESE  CHARACTERS.  209 


and  requires  little  or  no  special  study  to  read  it,  as  it  differs 
but  slightly  from  the  following. 

“ The  third  is  the  Mai  shu,  or  pattern  style,  and  has  been 
gradually  formed  by  the  improvements  in  good  writing.  It  is 
the  usual  form  of  Chinese  characters,  and  no  one  can  claim  a 
literary  name  among  his  countrymen  if  he  can  not  write  neatly 
and  correctly  in  this  style.  Books  are  sometimes  printed  in  it. 

“ The  fourth,  lung  shu,  or  running  hand,  is  the  common  hand 
of  a neat  writer.  It  is  frequently  used  in  prefaces  and  inscrip- 
tions, scrolls  and  tablets ; and  there  are  books,  prepared  in  par- 
allel columns,  having  this  and  the  pattern  style  arranged  for 
school-boys  to  learn  to  write  both  at  the  same  time.  The  two 
differ  so  much  that  the  running  hand  can  not  be  read  without 
a special  study ; and  although  this  labor  is  not  very  serious 
when  the  language  of  books  is  familiar,  still,  to  become  well 
acquainted  with  both  of  them,  withdraws  many  days  and 
months  of  the  pupil  from  progress  in  acquiring  knowledge  to 
learning  two  modes  of  writing  the  same  word.  Shopmen  use 
the  running  hand,  and  are  sometimes  better  acquainted  with 
its  abridged  forms  than  they  are  with  the  fuller  one  of  books. 

“ The  fifth  style  is  called  tscio  tsz,  or  plant  character,  and  is 
a freer  description  of  running  hand  than  the  preceding,  being 
full  of  abbreviations,  and  the  pencil  runs  from  character  to 
character  without  taking  it  from  the  paper  almost  at  the  writ- 
er’s fancy.  It  is  more  difficult  to  read  than  the  preceding, 
but,  as  the  abbreviations  are  somewhat  optional,  the  tscio  tsz  va- 
ries considerably,  and  more  or  less  resembles  the  running  hand 
according  to  the  will  of  the  writer.  The  fancy  of  the  Chinese 
for  a “ flowing  pencil,”  and  a mode  of  writing  where  the  ele- 
gance and  freedom  of  the  caligraphy  can  be  admired  as  much 
or  more  than  the  style  or  sentiment  of  the  writing,  as  well  as  a 
desire  to  contract  their  multangular  characters  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, has  contributed  to  introduce  and  perpetuate  these  two 
styles  of  writing.  How  much  all  these  varieties  of  form  super- 
add to  the  difficulty  of  learning  the  mere  apparatus  of  knowl- 
edge, need  hardly  be  stated. 


210 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


“ The  sixth  style  is  called  sun< 7 shu,  and  was  introduced  un- 
der the  Sung  dynasty,  in  the  tenth  century,  soon  after  printing 
on  wooden  blocks  was  invented,  and  still  continues  to  be  used 
more  than  any  other  in  well  printed-books.  It  differs  from 
the  Mai  shu,  or  pattern  style,  merely  in  a certain  squareness  of 
shape  and  angularity  of  stroke,  which  transcribers  for  the  press 
only  are  obliged  to  learn.  Of  these  six  forms  of  writing,  the 
pattern  style'and  running  hand  are  the  only  two  which  the  peo- 
ple learn  to  any  great  extent,  although  many  acquire  the  knowl- 
edge of  some  words  in  the  seal  character;  and  the  running 
hand  of  every  person,  especially  those  engaged  in  business,  ap- 
proaches more  or  less  to  the  plant  character.” 

In  writing,  the  Chinese  use  a fine  soft  cam el’s-hair  pencil  or 
brush,  holding  it  in  a vertical  position  with  the  thumb  nearly 
upright,  and  the  fingers  nearly  vertical,  the  lower  part  of  the 
pen  passing  between  the  two  middle  fingers.  Their  ink  is  the 
common  India  ink,  which  is  ground  on  a stone. 

It  is  a question  often  asked,  “ How  much  time  does  it  re- 
quire to  learn  the  Chinese  language?”  A person  of  ordinary 
ability,  with  close  application  and  perseverance,  will  be  able  to 
acquire  one  of  the  spolcen  languages,  so  as  to  speak  it  accurate- 
ly and  intelligibly,  in  about  a year,  though  with  a small  vocab- 
ulary. In  the  course  of  two  or  three  years,  he  ought  to  pos- 
sess a good  vocabulary,  and  fluency  in  using  it.  To  become 
familiar  with  the  written  language  of  China  is  almost  the  work 
of  a lifetime. 

Another  important  question  is  frequently  asked,  “ What 
proportion  of  the  population  of  China  can  read  ?”  Some  En- 
glish writers  have  made  the  estimate  very  large,  and  some  very 
small.  The  answer  which  we  will  adopt  as  the  true  one  will 
depend  upon  what  we  regard  as  reading  in  China.  Many  per- 
sons who  have  attended  school  a few  years,  and  learned  the 
names  of  a considerable  number  of  the  most  common  charac- 
ters without  having  learned  their  meanings,  may  be  able  to 
read  a page  of  a book,  or  most  of  the  characters  in  it,  very 
much  as  a person  may  read  a page  of  Latin,  without  knowing 


THE  NUMBER  OF  READERS  IN  CHINA. 


211 


any  thing,  or  but  very  little,  about  the  language.  If  we  in- 
clude these  persons  among  the  readers  of  China,  their  number 
will  be  large ; but  it  is  evident  that  this  is  not  reading  in  any 
proper  sense.  Again,  a person  in  a drug-store  may  become  fa- 
miliarly acquainted  with  the  characters  designating  every  arti- 
cle in  the  store,  and  also  with  terms  and  expressions  used  in 
keeping  books  and  writing  business  letters.  Within  this  little 
sphere,  he  may  be  said  to  read  and  write  intelligibly  and  ac- 
curately, while  he  may  know  little  or  nothing  of  the  language 
as  a whole.  The  same  is  true  in  other  occupations.  If  we  ex- 
clude this  class  as  well  as  the  former  from  those  who  can  un- 
derstand literature  generally,  the  proportion  of  readers  is  very 
small. 

Learning  to  read  Chinese  is  very  different  from  learning 
to  read  English.  We  have  an  alphabetical  system,  by  which 
we  read  our  oxen  spoken  language/  the  Chinese  must  learn 
a new  and  difficult  language,  and  also  learn  to  read  every 
word  separately  and  individually.  Hardly  any  of  the  women 
in  China  are  taught  letters  at  all;  very  few  of  the  farmers 
and  artisans,  who  form  the  large  proportion  of  the  males,  can 
read  intelligibly ; and  few  of  the  shop-keepers  can  read  the 
language  as  a whole.  The  fact  is,  there  are  not  many  who 
understand  general  literature,  as  the  masses  of  our  country 
do,  except  professed  literary  men  or  scholars.  It  is  my  opin- 
ion that  the  whole  number  of  those  who  can  read  in  this 
sense  is  not  more  than  three  per  cent,  of  the  whole  population. 
But  we  must  remember  that  this  three  per  cent,  forms  an  ag- 
gregate of  twelve  millions,  and  that  they  are  scattered  uni- 
formly over  the  whole  country,  and  influence  all  the  rest. 

The  principal  excellences  or  advantages  of  the  Chinese 
written  language  are  its  remarkable  compactness,  and  its 
power  of  expression.  It  is  justly  admired  for  the  beauty 
and  variety  of  its  characters,  its  copiousness,  and  the  delicate 
shades  of  meaning  which  it  expresses.  To  show  its  fullness 
in  some  points,  take  the  following  illustrations : In  the  place 
of  our  one  word  to  carry,  the  Chinese  use  Tcih,  to  take  or  car- 


212 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


ry  in  the  hand ; pao,  to  carry  in  the  arms ; kyih,  to  carry 
under  the  arm  ; pung , to  carry  extended  in  both  arms ; ting, 
to  carry  on  the  head ; pe,  to  carry  on  the  back ; ticio,  to  car- 
ry suspended  from  the  ends  of  a stick  resting  on  the  shoul- 
der ; tai,  to  carry  suspended  from  the  middle  of  a pole,  or 
poles,  resting  on  two  men’s  shoulders. 

The  Chinese  language,  on  account  of  its  monosyllabic  form, 
and  its  being  without  changes  or  inflections,  has  been  repre- 
sented by  some  modern  writers  as  the  most  primitive  and 
simple  of  all  languages.  Though  this  may  be  true,  in  a cer- 
tain sense,  it  is  certainly,  in  its  present  form,  one  of  the  most, 
if  not  the  most,  artificial  and  elaborate.  The  difficulties  of 
composing  in  it  may  be  compared  to  those  of  composing  in  a 
high  style  of  classical  Greek.  While  many  missionaries  are 
able  to  compose  fluently  and  accurately  in  the  spoken  lan- 
guage in  the  course  of  two  or  three  years,  and  prepare  ver- 
nacular books  for  the  press  with  very  little  assistance  or  re- 
vision from  native  scholars,  there  are  very  few  of  those  who 
have  been  studying  the  written  language  ten,  fifteen,  or  twen- 
ty years,  who  feel  competent  to  write  a book  in  it  unaided 
by  a native  literary  man. 

The  great  difficulties  connected  with  the  thorough  acqui- 
sition of  the  written  language  will  necessitate  some  change  or 
modification  of  it  when  the  Chinese  introduce  Western  arts 
and  sciences.  When  matters  of  more  importance  claim  their 
attention,  their  devotion  to  the  study  of  language  simply 
must  be  abated.  Probably  one  of  the  first  effects  will  be  that 
of  lowering  or  simplifying  the  style  of  the  written  language, 
and  bringing  it  into  nearer  accordance  with  the  spoken. 


ORIGIN  OF  BENEVOLENT  INSTITUTIONS. 


213 


CHAPTER  XV. 

BENEVOLENT  INSTITUTIONS  OF  CHINA. 

The  Origin  of  these  Institutions,  and  the  Distinctions  between  them  and 
those  in  Christian  Lands. — Orphan  Asylums. — Asylums  for  Old  Men. — 
Asylums  for  Animals. — Institutions  for  the  Relief  of  Widows.— Free 
Schools. — Chinese  Dispensaries. — Institutions  for  collecting  old  Pa- 
per, etc. — Society  for  the  Suppression  of  immoral  Books. — Beggars. — 
A benevolent  Society  embracing  a Variety  of  Objects. — Various  Bene- 
factions and  Modes  of  acquiring  Merit. 

That  benevolent  societies  are  found  in  a heathen  land, 
may  appear  strange  to  W estern  readers  ; but  it  is  a fact  that 
they  exist  in  China  in  numbers  and  variety  hardly  exceeded 
in  Christian  lands.  In  comparing  these  institutions  with 
those  of  the  West,  one  is  also  struck  with  the  similarity  which 
exists  in  their  nature  and  objects.  We  have  here  Orphan 
Asylums,  Institutions  for  the  Relief  of  Widows,  as  well  as 
for  the  Aged  and  Infirm,  Public  Hospitals,  and  Free  Schools, 
together  with  other  kindred  institutions  more  peculiarly  Chi- 
nese in  their  character.  Moral  tracts  are  also  distributed  to 
a great  extent. 

Roman  Catholics  have  claimed  the  honor  of  introducing 
these  societies  into  China,  but  there  is  evidence  that  they  ex- 
isted anterior  to  the  introduction  of  Christianity ; and  there 
is  no  necessity  for  seeking  for  them  a foreign  origin,  as  they 
grow  naturally  out  of  the  customs  and  institutions  of  the  peo- 
ple. These  associations,  whether  in  China  or  in  Christian 
lands,  have  their  common  origin  in  the  instinctive  sentiment 
of  pity  which  mankind  everywhere  feel  for  the  unfortunate 
and  distressed,  and  the  natural  promptings  of  the  heart  to  af- 
ford the  necessary  relief.  But  in  projecting  and  executing 


214 


.CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


extensive  plans  of  benevolence,  a stronger  motive  is  required 
than  a temporary  emotion  or  impulse.  It  is  in  the  character 
of  this  permanent  motive  that  the  distinction  between  these 
institutions  in  Christian  and  heathen  lands  is  found.  Among 
Christians,  the  strength  of  this  motive  is  due  mainly  to  high 
moral  principle,  and  a sense  of  duty  and  responsibility.  In 
China,  the  principal  ingredient  in  it,  though  it  is  strengthen- 
ed, no  doubt,  by  the  higher  and  nobler  impulses  of  our  na- 
ture, is  selfishness.  The  characteristic  feature  of  the  false 
religions  of  China  is  the  performance  of  meritorious  actions 
with  a view  to  the  attainment  of  selfish  ends.  In  doing  an 
act  which  the  conscience  pronounces  good  and  right,  a China- 
man imagines  that  he  is  justly  entitled  to  some  personal  advan- 
tage or  reward  corresponding  to  the  character  of  the  act  per- 
formed. Each  donor,  in  conferring  his  bounty,  has  one  or 
more  objects  in  view  more  or  less  specific.  The  most  com- 
mon objects  sought  for  are  success  in  business,  the  prosperity 
and  happiness  of  one’s  family,  fame,  and  civil  promotion,  and 
the  atonement  of  sin  and  consequent  blessedness  in  a future 
state.  With  these  introductory  remarks,  I propose  to  present 
a succinct  view  of  the  character  and  operations  of  some  of  the 
principal  benevolent  societies  which  now  exist  in  China. 

Orphan  Asylums  are  found  in  almost  every  city,  and  fre- 
quently in  country  villages.  They  are  established  by  a 
wealthy  individual,  or  several  individuals  associated  together, 
and  are  sometimes  supported  by  a permanent  fund,  or  the 
proceeds  of  lands  given  for  that  purpose.  Most  children 
brought  to  these  establishments  are  infants  whose  parents  are 
too  poor  to  support  them.  The  great  majority  of  them  are 
girls.  They  are  put  in  fhe  charge  of  foster-mothers,  who  gen- 
erally live  at  their  own  homes,  and  are  required  to  present 
them  for  inspection  at  the  asylum  every  half-month,  when 
they  receive  their  regular  stipend.  When  the  children  are 
about  two  years  old,  they  are  brought  back  to  the  establish- 
ment, and  several  are  put  under  the  care  of  one  nurse.  When 
they  have  arrived  at  a suitable  age,  boys  are  put  out  as  ap- 


VARIOUS  BENEVOLENT  ASYLUMS  IN  CHINA.  215 


prentices  to  learn  trades,  or  sent  to  free  schools ; girls  are  sold 
to  the  poorer  classes,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  country, 
as  wives.  Children  of  both  sexes  are,  however,  not  unfre- 
quently  adopted,  and  treated  by  their  benefactors  as  their 
own.  While  the  benevolent  design  of  these  institutions  is 
generally  at  first  thoroughly  carried  out,  and  the  children 
are  well  taken  care  of,  the  conduct  of  them  afterward  too 
often  falls  into  the  hands  of  those  w'ho  are  only  interested  in 
securing  their  own  advantage,  and  use  the  funds  intrusted  to 
them  for  their  own  purposes.  The  large  proportion  of  chil- 
dren who  die  in  these  asylums  is  sufficient  proof  that  they  are 
not  cared  for  as  they  should  be. 

In  Hang-chow,  the  provincial  capital  of  Che-kiang,  I found, 
in  connection  with  a variety  of  benevolent  institutions,  an 
Asylum  for  Old  Men,  in  which  I became  particularly  interest- 
ed, and  which  I frequently  visited.  . It  contained,  in  1859, 
about  five  hundred  inmates.  The  building  was  large,  the 
beneficiaries  were  made  very  comfortable,  and  every  thing  con- 
nected with  the  establishment  was  carried  on  with  as  much 
order  and  system  as  in  a similar  institution  in  bur  own  coun- 
try. In  addition  to  an  immense  dining-room,  kitchen,  and 
sleeping  apartments,  conveniences  were  afforded  in  separate 
buildings  for  making  different  articles  of  handicraft,  and  the 
inmates  were  at  liberty  to  spend  as  much  time  as  they  chose 
working  at  some  trade,  and  to  make  such  use  as  they  pleased 
of  whatever  they  might  earn  in  this  Avay. 

Not  far  from  the  same  city,  and  forming  a part  of  the 
large  and  celebrated  Buddhist  temple  Yumg-si,  is,  or  rather 
Avas,  an  institution  such  as  I have  not  met  Avith  or  heard  of 
elseAvhere,  which  illustrates  at  the  same  time  the  desire  of  the 
Chinese  to  acquire  merit,  and  the  practical  influence  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  transmigration  of  souls.  The  institution  re- 
ferred to  is  an  Asylum  for  Animals.  It  Avas  a large  building 
a short  distance  from  the  temple,  and  almost  every  department 
of  the  animal  kingdom  Avas  represented  in  it,  and  some  in 
large  numbers.  It  was  supposed  that  these  animals,  placed 


216 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


under  the  fostering  influences  of  this  celebrated  temple,  were 
almost  sure  to  rise  in  the  scale  of  being,  and  that  they  would 
probably  become  men  in  the  next  state  of  existence.  Some 
were  family  pets  which  had  received  this  greatest  of  evidences 
of  affection,  that  of  being  made  occupants  for  life  of  this  in- 
stitution. Many  had  been  bought  in  the  market,  and  rescued 
from  the  butcher’s  knife,  by  persons  coming  to  the  temple  to 
worship,  who  had  thus  obtained  the  double  merit  of  saving 
life,  and  aiding  in  the  securing  of  a higher  existence  in  the 
life  to  come. 

Societies  for  affording  pecuniary  aid  to  widows  are  very 
common,  and  exist  either  independently  or  in  connection  with 
societies  embracing  several  distinct  objects  conjointly.  Im- 
mediately after  the  death  of  her  husband,  a widow  receives  a 
larger  stipend  than  at  any  subsequent  time,  in  order  to  assist 
her  in  providing  for  her  young  children.  This  allowance  is 
gradually  diminished  ; and  as  old  age  approaches,  women  of 
this  class,  if  they  have  no  children  able  to  support  them,  are 
sometimes  transferred  to  another  establishment  which  pro- 
vides for  the  wants  of  the  aged  and  infirm.  When  a respecta- 
ble and  worthy  widow  is  in  Avant,  and  the  limited  number  of 
beneficiaries  in  the  public  asylums  is  complete,  private  indi- 
viduals frequently  make  contributions  to  afford  relief  in  these 
particular  cases.  The  peculiar  interest  felt  in  this  class  of 
Avomen  is  due  to  the  vieAvs  of  the  Chinese  respecting  the  dis- 
reputableness of  the  second  marriages  of  Avidows.  Among 
the  poor,  and  in  case  of  widows  Avho  have  no  children  to  de- 
pend upon  in  after-life,  a second  marriage  is  alloAvable,  though 
the  opposite  course  is  spoken  of  in  terms  of  the  highest  com- 
mendation as  honorable  and  meritorious.  The  ground  for 
this  feeling  seems  to  be  respect  for  the  memory  of  the  de- 
ceased husband.  Not  only  are  AAridows  assisted  in  remaining 
in  the  single  state  as  aboAre  mentioned,  but  they  are  still  fur- 
ther encouraged  to  do  so  by  the  hope  of  having  stone  tablets 
erected  to  their  memory  by  the  special  order,  and  partly  at 
the  expense  of  the  Emperor.'  These  tablets  are  in  shape 


PORTALS  IN  HONOR  OF  VIRTUOUS  WIDOWS.  217 

like  a large  gateway,  and  are  everywhere  seen  forming  one  of 
the  principal  objects  in  Chinese  scenery.  They  are  generally 
in  a conspicuous  place  by  the  roadside,  near  the  residence  of 
the  family  with  which  the  person  commemorated  was  con- 
nected. They  are  built  about  twenty  feet  high,  of  the  finest 
hewn  stone,  with  sundry  ornaments  and  inscriptions  elaborate- 
ly carved.  It  happens  occasionally  that  a daughter  devotes 


HONORARY  STONE  PORTAL  TO  TI1E  MEMORY  OF  VIRTUOUS  AND  FILIAL  WIDOWS. 

her  life  to  taking  care  of  her  parents,  refusing  ever  to  marry ; 
in  which  case  she  is  regarded  with  still  greater  respect,  and 
is  honored  with  a still  finer  monumental  arch.  It  is  part  of 
the  business  of  these  societies  to  be  at  the  trouble  and  ex- 
pense of  bringing  these  cases  before  the  notice  of  the  Emper- 
or, and  securing  for  those  who  are  incapacitated  for  attend- 
ing to  this  business  themselves  that  public  consideration  and 
respect  which  it  is  supposed  they  deserve.  In  the  present 
condition  of  the  empire,  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  money  from 
the  imperial  treasury  for  such  objects,  and  a modification  of 
the  old  practice  has  been  adopted,  which  consists  in  inscribing 
several  names  on  the  same  tablet. 

K 


218 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


Free  Day  Schools  are  everywhere  to  be  met  with,  and 
some  of  the  larger  cities  contain  several  of  them.  Each  one 
is  usually  instituted  and  supported  by  the  benefactions  of  a 
rich  individual  or  family.  It  is  not  considered  very  respecta- 
ble to  attend  these  charity  schools,  and  the  pupils  in  them 
are,  for  the  most  part,  the  children  of  the  poor.  As  a gener- 
al thing,  they  are  also  not  so  well  taught  as  other  schools. 
It  need  hardly  be  remarked,  that  while  it  is  not  considered 
very  respectable  to  attend  a native  free  school,  it  is  still  less 
so  to  attend  a foreign  one.  This  is  owing  not  only  to  the  in- 
vidiousness of  depending  upon  foreigners  for  education,  but 
to  the  fact  that  foreign  as  well  as  native  books  are  taught  in 
them.  Pupils  are  obtained  for  foreign  day  schools,  either  by 
procuring  a superior  teacher,  or  by  presents  to  the  boys,  or 
by  locating  the  school  where  there  is  no  native  school  to  com- 
pete with  it.  An  effort  to  start  a Christian  day  school  some 
years  since  in  the  city  of  Chinhai  induced  the  natives  to  add 
to  the  number  of  their  own  schools,  so  that  another  pupil 
could  not  be  obtained  in  the  city. 

In  some  parts  of  China  schools  for  girls  exist,  taught  by 
female  teachers.  In  most  places,  however,  females  are  seldom 
taught  letters,  and  schools  for  their  benefit  are  not  known. 
Foreigners,  in  establishing  them,  invariably  give  a little  sum 
of  money  or  some  rice  for  each  day’s  attendance,  and  it  is 
thought  that  these  schools  could  not  be  kept  together  in  any 
other  way. 

The  gratuitous  distribution  of  medicine  is  quite  common 
in  China.  In  the  summer  especially,  certain  remedies  much 
prized  by  the  people  may  be  obtained  free  of  charge  from 
societies  which  include  this  among  other  objects  for  which 
they  are  instituted.  There  is  a very  common  mode  of  prac- 
ticing the  healing  art,  professedly  from  benevolent  motives, 
in  which  a selfish  object  is  too  apparent.  Notices  may  con- 
tinually be  seen  placarded  in  public  places  calling  the  atten- 
tion of  the  public  to  some  distinguished  personage  of  the 
Esculapian  school  who  has  learned  his  art  at  the  capital,  or 


SUPERSTITIOUS  REGARD  FOR  WRITTEN  CHARACTERS.  219 

from  some  foreigner,  or  from  some  distinguished  native  practi- 
tioner, or  by  communication  with  the  genii,  who  is  desirous 
of  relieving  those  who  are  in  a condition  of  suffering  and  dis- 
tress, and  will  give  them  an  opportunity  to  avail  themselves 
of  his  knowledge  and  skill  without  charge,  except  for  the  cost 
of  medicine. 

Perhaps  the  most  popular  of  all  the  methods  of  obtaining 
merit  in  China  is  that  of  collecting  old  scraps  of  printed  pa- 
per. This  is  practiced  extensively  by  individuals  and  fami- 
lies, as  well  as  by  so- 
cieties. Persons  are 
hired  to  go  about  the 
streets,  and  in  shops 
and  houses,  to  gather 
every  thing  of  the 
kind  which  can  be 
seen.  The  merit  of 
the  practice  is  sup- 
posed to  consist  in 
keeping  the  Chinese 
' written  character,  so 
much  and  so  extrava- 
gantly revered,  from 
being  trampled  upon, 
thrown  away  with 
other  kinds  of  refuse, 
or  otherwise  treated  mas  with  baskets  gathering  lettered  taper. 
with  disrespect.  No  distinction  is  made  between  the  writ- 
ten and  printed  character;  between  an  old  leaf  from  one  of 
the  classics,  and  one  from  a vulgar  song-book ; between  a 
proclamation  of  an  officer,  and  the  copy-book  of  a school-boy. 
In  school-rooms,  shops,  private  residences,  and  sometimes  by 
the  roadside,  baskets  or  boxes  designed  for  the  reception  of 
these  revered  scraps  are  placed  in  conspicuous  situations 
bearing  the  inscription,  “ Respect  printed  paper.”  When  a 
large  quantity  of  this  paper  has  been  collected,  it  is  burned, 


220 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


and  the  ashes  are  generally  carried  by  j unks  to  the  sea,  where 
they  are  thrown  overboard. 

In  this  custom  of  the  Chinese  we  have  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal reasons  why  the  Christian  books  which  we  distribute 
among  them  are  respectfully  used  and  carefully  preserved. 
It  is  also  worthy  of  remark,  that  few  things  excite  the  feel- 
ings and  prejudices  of  the  Chinese,  or  produce  a more  un- 
favorable impression  with  regard  to  foreigners,  than  the 
manner  in  which  we  are  accustomed  to  treat  useless  printed 
paper.  It  is  often  referred  to  as  an  evidence  of  our  want 
of  right  views  and  principles.  Christian  Chinese  are  hard- 
ly less  under  the  influence  of  these  feelings  than  the  rest  of 
their  countrymen,  and,  in  the  different  parts  of  China,  they 
have  frequently  and  earnestly  expostulated  Avith  their  foreign 
teachers  Avith  reference  to  the  course  pursued  by  them  in 
this  particular.  Some  missionaries  purposely  disregard  these 
prejudices,  on  the  ground  that  they  have  their  origin  in  a 
ATeneration  for  the  God  of  Letters,  and  a fear  of  offending 
him.  Others  are  of  the  opinion  that  this  superstition  is  of  a 
more  innocent  character,  and  is  chiefly  OAving,  even  in  the 
minds  of  the  heathen  Chinese,  to  an  overweening  regard  for 
the  characters  themselves,  on  account  of  their  antiquity, 
their  beauty,  the  associations  connected  with  them,  and  the 
advantages  derived  from  their  use.  The  fact  that  native 
Christians,  Avho  are  thoroughly  freed  from  idolatrous  super- 
stitions, still  sympathize  Avith  their  countrymen  in  this  par- 
ticular, adds  to  the  probability  of  the  latter  opinion.  It  is  a 
question  whether  regard  to  the  weak  consciences  of  our  na- 
tive brethren,  and  a care  lest  the  Gospel  should  be  evil  spoken 
of,  should  not  induce  us  to  treat  Avith  more  forbearance  and 
consideration  what  may  be  but  an  innocent  and  harmless 
prejudice. 

These  singular  notions  respecting  the  character  have,  with- 
in the  past  feAV  years,  been  carried  to  a still  greater  extreme, 
causing  no  little  trouble  and  annoyance.  The  people  have 
noticed  the  inconsistency  of  gathering  up  fragments  of  printed 


SUPPRESSION  OF  IMMORAL  LITERATURE. 


221 


paper,  while  they  have  paid  no  regard  to  broken  crockery 
bearing  inscriptions.  Accordingly,  these  societies,  which  eas- 
ily gain  the  concurrence,  and  the  sanction  and  co-operation  of 
the  authorities  in  carrying  out  their  plans,  have  succeeded  in 
prohibiting,  to  a great  extent,  the  practice  of  ornamenting 
china  with  their  universally  admired  chirography.  Arrange- 
ments have  also  been  made  in  some  places  for  buying  up  at 
cost  all  this  kind  of  ware  in  the  shops.  Through  the  influ- 
ence of  these  societies,  the  authorities  have  also  forbidden 
the  working  of  Chinese  letters  in  embroidery.  Not  only  com- 
mon symbols  now  in  ordinary  use,  but  other  figures  and  de- 
signs bearing  no  resemblance  to  any  character  whatever,  are 
declared  to  be  modifications  of  ancient  characters,  and  are  in- 
cluded under  the  common  interdict. 

A new  enterprise  originated  a few  years  since  in  the  city 
of  Suchow,  and  has  since  been  introduced  into  other  places, 
which  can  not  but  be  regarded  with  peculiar  interest.  Its  ex- 
press object  is  “ the  suppression  of  immoral  books.”  This 
enterprise  has  also  gained  the  sanction  and  concurrence  of  the 
authorities,  and  has  already  done  much  toward  checking  the 
influence  of  this  source  of  demoralization.  The  people  are  not 
only  requested,  but  required  to  bring  such  books  as  have 
been  prohibited  to  the  head-quarters  of  this  society,  where  they 
receive  nearly  an  equivalent  for  them  in  money.  Not  only 
books,  but  the  stereotyped  blocks  from  which  they  are  print- 
ed, are  thus  collected  at  a great  expense,  and  all  are  together 
at  stated  times  committed  to  the  flames.  Several  of  the  cele- 
brated standard  novels  of  China,  which,  in  a moral  point  of 
view,  will  bear  favorable  comparison  with  some  of  the  cur- 
rent popular  literature  of  our  own  country,  have  fallen  under 
the  ban  of  this  society,  and  can  not  now  be  obtained  without 
great  trouble  and  expense.  Instances  have  occurred  in  which 
booksellers  who  have  continued  to  sell  immoral  works  in  the 
face  of  these  regulations  have  become  obnoxious  to  public  au- 
thority, and  incurred  a great  sacrifice  of  reputation  and  prop- 
erty. 


222 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


Not  a small  portion  of  the  benefactions  of  the  Chinese  is 
given  to  beggars — a class  which  is  very  numerous.  It  is  not 
only  regarded  as  meritorious  to  give  to  them,  but  very  unpro- 
pitious  to  send  them  away  empty.  Accordingly,  the  people 
are  much  afraid  of  beggars,  and  meekly  put  up  with  all  sorts 
of  impertinence  and  insolence  from  them.  They  are  scarcely 
ever  turned  away  from  a shop  without  at  least  a worn-out 
cash  (in  value  less  than  one-tenth  of  a cent),  though  they 
sometimes  wait  a long  time  to  get  it.  Those  who  are  most 
boisterous,  and  give  the  shop-keeper  most  trouble,  get  their 
allowance  soonest,  and  leave  to  beset  some  one  else.  They 
are  clothed,  when  clothed  at  all,  in  the  most  disgusting  man- 
ner possible,  in  order  that  the  people  may  be  anxious  the 
sooner  to  get  rid  of  them.  Some  introduce  themselves  with 
a boisterous,  grating  song ; some  attract  attention  by  an  an- 
noying rattle;  some  carry  a snake  trained  to  dart  out  its 
tongue,  to  operate  upon  the  fears  of  those  whose  sympathies 
are  not  so  easily  reached.  Sometimes  a company  of  clamor- 
ous women  with  children  may  be  seen  together  besetting  a 
shop-keeper.  If  the  unfortunate  man  is  unwilling  to  comply 
with  their  demands,  or  undertakes  to  drive  them  from  his 
door,  they  pour  upon  him  a torrent  of  abuse,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  beat  upon  his  counter  in  defiance.  There  is  no  help 
for  the  poor  victim ; though  provoked  to  the  last  degree,  he 
looks  the  very  picture  of  despair,  afraid  to  give  vent  to  his 
anger  for  fear  of  calling  together  an  additional  number  of 
these  harpies,  and  thus  adding  to  the  confusion.  Beggars 
are,  in  many  respects,  the  most  independent  men  in  the  em- 
pire, and  it  is  surprising  to  see  how  passively  the  people  sub- 
mit to  their  inflictions.  The  class  referred  to,  however,  are 
the  worst  kind,  and  may  be  called  professional  beggars. 
They  demand  their  cash  as  their  right,  and  return  no  thanks 
for  it.  They  usually  have  a leader,  who  is  distinguished  from 
the  common  herd  by  his  superior  insolence  and  daring,  and 
woa  betide  the  man  Avho  has  fallen  under  the  displeasure  of 
this  beggar-king,  and  is  visited  by  him  and  his  motley  crew 


VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  BEGGARS. 


223 


to  seek  revenge.  These  gangs  are  mostly  to  be  feared  on 
wedding  and  similar  occasions.  Disturbances  may  be  avoid- 
ed at  such  times  by  giving  an  amount  of  money  to  one  of 
these  leaders,  who  then  guards  the  door  for  the  day,  and 
either  buys  or  beats  off  all  other  comers. 

A more  worthy  class  of  mendicants  may  sometimes  be  dis- 
tinguished from  these,  who  are  really  objects  of  charity. 
They  usually  beg  by  the  roadside,  in  an  imploring  tone  of 
voice,  and  repay  their  benefactors  with  the  wish  that  they 
may  live  a hundred  years.  The  expression  used  in  begging 
is,  “ Perform  a good  act,”  intimating  that  the  person  confer- 
ring a favor,  not  only  relieves  the  one  receiving  it,  but  acquires 
merit  for  himself.  In  some  cities  and  towns  arrangements  are 
made  for  buying  off  these  beggars.  Each  shop  or  family 
pays  a yearly  beggar’s  fee ; the  fund  thus  obtained  is  given  to 
the  fraternity  of  beggars,  and  they  are  expected  to  appeal  for 
nothing  more,  and  leave  the  people  unmolested — at  least, 
those  streets  which  have  paid  their  contributions. 

There  are  in  Chinese  cities  public  asylums,  sustained  at 
the  expense  of  government,  containing  a limited  number  of 
diseased  and  disabled  poor,  who  receive  a daily  allowance, 
insufficient  for  their  support,  and  eke  out  the  remainder  of 
their  living  by  begging.  They  are  more  successful  than 
others,  as  they  carry  the  evidences  of  their  misfortunes  in 
their  physical  infirmities,  and  some  of  them  amass  considerable 
property.  These  also  have  their  heads  or  leaders,  some  of 
whom  are  brokers  and  bill-shavers.  They  sometimes  buy  bad 
bills  at  a discount,  and  collect  them  by  attacking  the  house  of 
the  delinquent  debtor  with  an  army  of  beggars,  until  he  is 
glad  to  get  rid  of  them  by  paying  it. 

The  most  popular  of  the  benevolent  institutions  in  Ningpo, 
and  the  one  having  by  far  the  largest  income,  includes  a varie- 
ty of  objects.  It  has  a fund  for  providing  coffins  for  the  poor, 
a fund  for  carrying  coffins  which  have  bean  thrown  carelessly 
aside  to  some  suitable  place  for  interment,  and  one  for  collect- 
ing and  burying  again  human  bones  which  are  found  exposed 


224 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


to  view ; also  a fund  for  providing  medicine  in  summer,  and 
warm  clothes  in  winter ; a fund  for  the  relief  of  widows  ; one 
for  gathering  old  printed  paper,  and  the  only  one  in  Ningpo 
for  suppressing  immoral  books.  This  society  has  a large 
building,  with  as  many  secretaries  and  superintendents  as  are 
necessary  for  the  orderly  and  efficient  carrying  on  of  its  ex- 
tensive operations. 

It  is  also  worthy  of  remark,  that  most  of  the  roads  and 
fine  arch  bridges,  as  well  as  the  public  buildings  of  China,  are 
constructed  by  voluntary  donations.  In  connection  with  these 
public  works  it  is  very  common  to  see  stone  tablets  erected, 
containing  the  names  of  the  donors  and  the  amounts  of  their 
subscriptions. 

Tea  is  in  many  places  provided  for  travellers,  and  offered 
gratuitously  in  resting-houses  by  the  roadside.  Poor  scholars 
are  furnished  with  money  for  travelling  expenses  in  attending 
the  literary  examinations. 

A family  in  Ningpo  is  quite  celebrated  for  hiring  a com- 
pany of  masons  during  a part  of  the  year  to  go  about  the 
country  repairing  graves  so  old  that  it  is  not  known  to  whom 
they  belong.  Though  not  a remnant  of  a coffin  or  of  bones 
can  be  found  in  them,  new  bricks  are  made  to  enclose  the 
place  which  once  contained  the  coffin,  and  these  are  covered 
with  flag-stones,  on  which  earth  is  piled  in  the  form  of  a new 
tomb.  Though  nothing  can  be  seen  in  them,  it  is  said  “the 
ashes  still  repose  there.”  A young  member  of  this  family 
has  lately  been  successful  in  the  provincial  examination,  and 
his  good  fortune  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  the  merit  resulting 
from  this  enterprise.  It  is  currently  reported  that  his  com- 
positions were  rejected  by  one  of  the  public  examiners  at  first, 
but  were  afterward  forced  upon  his  attention  in  dreams  on 
successive  nights  by  crowds  of  interested  earnest  persons, 
believed  to  be  the  grateful  spirits  belonging  to  the  graves 
which  have  been  repaired. 

To  attempt  to  enumerate  all  the  modes  of  acquiring  merit 
in  China  would  be  as  tedious  as  it  would  be  useless.  The  in- 


225 


“the  poor  can  not  acquire  merit.” 

stitutions  referred  to  above  have  been  cited  as  the  principal 
and  most  important,  the  practice  of  tract  distribution  being 
reserved  for  a separate  chapter.  The  names  and  objects  of 
these  societies  differ  in  different  sections  of  the  empire. 

It  is  a remark  often  heard  in  China  from  those  who  are 
urged  to  seek  for  happiness  in  a future  state,  that  they  are 
poor,  and  can  not  perform  deeds  of  merit.  How  little  do  we 
who  are  possessed  of  it  appreciate  the  blessings  of  that  Gospel 
which  is  preached  to  the  poor,  and  makes  those  who  are  rich 
in  faith  alone  heirs  of  a heavenly  and  unfading  inheritance. 

K 2 


226 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE  MORAL  TRACT  LITERATURE  OF  CHINA. 

The  Literature  of  China,  various  and  extensive. — The  Relation  of  moral 
Tracts  to  the  Chinese  religious  Systems. — Different  Kinds  of  Tracts. — 
Table  of  Contents  of  “ Light  in  the  Dark  Dwelling.” — Motives  to  which 
the  distributing  of  Tracts  is  due. — The  Work  is  done  by  Individuals, 
and  not  Societies. — These  Works  evidence  the  Teachings  of  natural 
Religion,  and  the  Necessity  of  a superior  Revelation. — Translation  of 
“Ode  on  Emptiness.” — “Ode  on  Discontent.” — Treatise  on  “Rewards 
and  Punishments.” — Tracts  presented  to  Gods. — Their  Influence  on 
the  People. — Our  Encouragements  and  Discouragements  in  distribu- 
ting Christian  Tracts. 

The  literature  of  China  is  very  extensive,  and  embraces  a 
great  variety  of  works  : classical,  historical,  metaphysical, 
controversial,  poetical,  fictitious,  medical,  biographical,  and 
dramatic ; and  also  works  connected  with  Buddhism  and 
Tauism,  and  those  relating  to  the  different  arts,  sciences,  oc- 
cupations, etc. 

Passing  over  these  departments  of  literature  with  the 
simple  reference  to  them,  I propose  in  this  chapter  to  speak 
of  books  on  practical  morality,  having  for  their  special  and 
professed  object  the  inculcation  of  virtue,  the  reforming  of 
the  age,  and  the  elevating  of  the  standard  of  morals. 

The  fact  that  the  gratuitous  distribution  of  tracts  has 
long  been  practiced  in  China,  is  hardly  less  remarkable  than 
the  moral  tone  and  character  of  the  tracts  themselves.  This 
literature  is  different  from  books  distinctively  belonging  to 
the  three  religions,  the  latter  treating  of  their  respective  sys- 
tems in  detail,  and  containing  little  of  interest  to  the  general 
reader,  on  account  of  their  prolixity  and  abstruseness.  Moral 
tracts  are,  for  the  most  part,  written  by  Confucianists  whose 


CELEBRATED  BCj£>KS  ON  MORALITY. 


227 


minds  are  strongly  tinctured  with  Buddhist  and  Tauist  views. 
The  training  which  scholars  obtain  in  the  school  of  Confucius 
gives  to  their  books  a richness  of  diction  and  a high  literary 
finish,  while  the  other  two  systems,  particularly  Buddhism, 
supply  those  ideas  respecting  superior  and  inferior  deities,  de- 
parted spirits,  and  a future  state,  which  so  naturally  and 
strongly  impress  the  human  mind. 

These  tracts,  though  differing  in  size  and  form,  have  for 
their  common  object  the  inculcation  of  one  or  more  of  the 
esteemed  virtues.  Some  are  large,  and  comprehend  the  whole 
circle  of  virtues  as  held  by  the  Chinese ; some  are  small, 
and  relate  only  to  one.  Some,  on  account  of  their  superior 
excellences  in  matter  or  style,  are  regarded  as  standard 
works,  and  are  known  throughout  the  eighteen  provinces; 
others  have  only  a temporary  and  local  fame.  The  former 
generally  have,  as  their  basis,  reputed  revelations  from  differ- 
ent deities  relating  to  the  performance  of  various  duties,  to 
the  strict  superintendence  of  the  gods  over  the  actions  of 
men,  and  the  rewards  and  punishments  of  a future  state. 

Prominent  among  this  class  of  works  may  be  mentioned 
“ The  Sacred  Edict “ Traditions  for  Reforming  Manners 
“ A Book  to  be  Revered  and  Believed “ A Book  to  be  read 
by  Every  Body “ Guide  to  Prosperity A Book  on  Re- 
wards and  Punishments “ A Book  on  Daily  Self-examina- 
tion,” and  “■  Light  in  a Dark  Dwelling.”  The  authors  of 
these  works  are,  for  the  most  part,  men  high  in  station  and 
influence,  and  the  first  one  named  was  written  by  one  of  the 
most  renowned  Emperors  of  the  present  dynasty. 

Perhaps  a correct  idea  of  the  character  of  these  books,  and 
the  matter  which  they  contain,  could  not  be  better  conveyed 
to  a person  not  conversant  with  the  Chinese  than  by  trans- 
lating the  table  of  contents  of  the  last  one  in  the  above  list. 
The  first  volume  is  principally  occupied  with  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  revelations  of  the  gods,  to  most  of  which  are 
appended  explanations  and  remarkable  events,  for  the  purpose 
of  showing  their  genuineness,  and  the  good  they  have  been  the 


228  CHINA  AND  TIJE  CHINESE. 

means  of  conferring  on  the  people.  These  professed  revela- 
tions are  obtained  in  the  manner  described  in  Chapter  XII. 
The  first  volume  also  contains  “ An  Ode  on  the  Acquisition 
of  Happiness “ An  Ode  on  Contentment “ An  Ode  on 
Discontent “ An  Ode  on  the  Emptiness  of  all  Human 
Things “ An  Essay  to  dissuade  from  drowning  Female 
Children ;”  and,  lastly,  “ Resolutions  of  Doubts  which  might 
be  suggested  to  the  Mind  of  the  Reader  in  perusing  the  fore- 
going Sections.”  The  second  volume  contains,  first,  “ A gen- 
eral Dissertation  on  Mirrors”  (i.  e.,  facts  of  histoiy, reflecting 
lessons  of  the  past)  ; then  follow  “ The  Mirror  of  reverencing 
Heaven;”  “The  Mirror  of  Filial  Duty;”  “An  Ode  to  exhort 
to  Filial  Duty;”  “An  Ode  of  Eight  Opposites  or  Contrasts  ;” 
“ The  Mirror  of  the  Fraternal  Relation ;”  “ The  Mirror  of  the 
.Conjugal  Relation;”  “The  Mirror  of  Loyalty;”  “The  Mir- 
ror of  Friendship  ;”  “ The  Mirror  of  Kindness,”  etc.  Other 
chapters  follow  on  the  subjects  of  licentiousness,  geomancy, 
litigation,  deceit,  selfishness,  the  bringing  to  light  of  secret 
things,  virtue,  lowly-mindedness,  forbearance,  evil-speaking, 
the  duties  of  teacher  and  pupil,  and  the  duty  to  refrain  from 
taking  animal  life.  To  these  are  appended  a chapter  on  max- 
ims to  be  kept  continually  before  the  mind,  and  one#  contain- 
ing exhortations  to  abstain  from  the  use  of  opium,  with  eight 
reasons. 

The  inj  unctions  of  these  'books,  relating  almost  exclusive- 
ly to  the  duties  of  the  Five  Relations,  and  being  deduced 
from  the  knowledge  of  right  and  wrong  which  God  has  made 
a part  of  the  intuitions  of  man’s  moral  nature,  are,  for  the 
most  part,  just  and  admirable ; and  many  of  the  arguments 
by  which  they  are  enforced  are  clear  and  striking.  Some  of 
these  books  are  almost  entirely  taken  up  with  statements  of 
moral  duties,  and  collections  of  excellent  precepts  and  max- 
ims, with  a very  little  admixture  of  superstition  and  idolatry. 
In  the  great  majority  of  them,  most  of  the  motives  by  which 
these  duties  are  inculcated  are  superstitious  and  frivolous  in 
the  extreme ; forming  a strange  and  pitiable  commingling  of 


MOTIVES  TO  TRACT  DISTRIBUTION". 


229 


light  and  darkness,  truth  and  error,  the  inconsistency  and  in- 
congruity of  which  the  people  seem  utterly  unable  to  per- 
ceive. In  order  to  urge  man  to  the  performance  of  duty,  the 
greater  part  of  some  tracts  is  taken  up  with  accounts  of  won- 
derful interpositions  of  the  gods  in  behalf  of  men  who 
have  performed  meritorious  actions,  evidences  of  men  being 
changed  into  animals  on  account  of  sins  in  a previous  life, 
and  sundry  revelations  of  gods  and  spirits  relating  to  the  un- 
seen world.  According  to  Chinese  morality,  this  deception  and 
falsehood  are  regarded  as  excusable  when  they  are  practiced 
in  order  to  frighten  either  children  or  men  into  the  perform- 
ance of  duty.  Hence  the  many  incredible  stories  with  which 
these  books  are  filled,  which,  with  their  precise  dates  and 
names  of  persons  and  places,  are  now  regarded  as  authentic, 
probably  owed  their  origin  in  the  first  instance  to  the  (in  the 
Chinese  view)  laudable  endeavor  to  deceive,  coax,  or  frighten 
people  for  their  good. 

The  motive  which  leads  to  the  distribution  of  these  books 
is,  with  few,  if  any,  exceptions,  a selfish  one.  This  work  is 
regarded  as  one  of  merit,  in  consequence  of  which  great  advan- 
tages will  accrue  to  those  engaged  in  it.  The  end  sought  is  to 
secure  the  favor  and  interposition  of  the  gods  in  times  of 
special  emergency  and  danger,  or  to  avert  some  anticipated 
calamity,  or  to  obtain  some  other  object  earnestly  desired. 
The  circumstances  under  which  tracts  are  most  frequently 
distributed  are  the  following : the  severe  and  dangerous  ill- 
ness of  one’s  self,  parent,  or  near  relative,  the  being  without 
a son  and  heir,  delicate  health,  and  the  apprehension  of  pre- 
mature death,  and  a desire  to  obtain  wealth  or  success  at  the 
literary  examinations — these  objects  relating,  in  most  cases, 
to  the  present  life. 

As  might  be  inferred  from  the  above,  there  is  in  China 
nothing  to  correspond  to  the  publishing  societies  of  Western 
countries.  Individuals,  in  printing  the  first  edition  of  a book, 
generally  intimate  on  the  title-page  at  what  place  the  blocks 
may  be  found,  so  that  any  other  persons  may  afterward  strike 


230 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


off  any  number  of  additional  impressions  by  incurring  only 
the  expense  of  paper  and  printing.  These  books  are  disposed 
•of  gratuitously,  or  at  a price  barely  sufficient  to  cover  the 
cost  of  publishing.  They  are  distributed  sometimes  by  a 
person  employed  to  carry  them  from  house  to  house,  some- 
times by  being  placed  in  book-stores,  to  be  taken  by  those 
who  wish  them,  and  sometimes  at  the  public  literary  examina- 
tions. The  last  method  has  the  two  great  advantages  of 
giving  books  a wider  circulation  by  means  of  persons  collect- 
ed from  different  sections  of  the  country,  and  also  putting 
them  in  the  hands  of  those  who  are  most  able  and  disposed  to 
read  them.  Missionaries  at  the  different  ports  have  taken  ad- 
vantage of  this  mode  of  circulating  books  with  much  encour- 
agement. 

The  tract  literature  of  China  is  invested  with  peculiar  in- 
terest and  importance,  not  only  on  account  of  its  presenting  a 
correct  portraiture  of  the  religious  and  superstitious  views  of 
the  people,  but  as  giving  a practical  illustration  of  the  amount 
of  knowledge  which  can  be  derived  from  the  light  of  nature, 
and  of  the  necessity  of  a superior  revelation. 

Among  the  most  prominent  facts  which  the  tracts  of  the 
Chinese  disclose  is  a consciousness  of  sin  and  personal  re- 
sponsibility which  is  the  basis  and  originating  cause  of  all 
their  idolatrous  systems.  Connected  with  this  consciousness 
of  sin  and  fear  of  future  punishment  is  a restlessness  and 
longing  for  some  way  of  escape  from  sin  and  its  consequences. 
Different  modes  devised  all  recognize  the  essential  idea  of 
merit  as  an  atonement  for  ill-desert.  The  idea  of  rewards 
and  punishments  is  not  only  held  in  its  general  form,  but  it  is 
universally  taught,  and  usually  believed,  that  an  accurate  ac- 
count is  kept  of  all  men’s  actions  with  reference  to  a strict 
and  just  examination  and  award  in  the  future.  Men  are  so 
impressed  with  this  belief,  that  near  the  close  of  life  they 
sometimes  effect  a thorough  reform,  and  are  earnest  and  per- 
severing in  the  use  of  such  means  as  their  systems  prescribe 
for  the  atonement  of  past  misdeeds.  A noted  Chinese  schol- 


ODE  ON  EMPTINESS. 


231 


ar  who  lived  in  the  city  of  Chinhai,  who  had  spent  much  of 
his  life  in  writing  and  printing  verses  of  an  immoral  tendency, 
was  led  by  remorse  and  fear  to  endeavor  to  undo  the  evil  in- 
fluences of  his  past  conduct,  and  devoted  his  talents  during 
the  remaining  part  of  his  life  to  writing  books  of  an  entirely 
opposite  character. 

A prominent  idea  in  most  of  these  books,  and  one  which 
forms  the  key-note  of  some,  is  that  of  the  vanity  and  unsatis- 
factory nature  of  all  earthly  things.  A literal  translation  of  a 
Chinese  ode  on  “ The  EmjMiness  of  all  Things,”  taken  from 
the  tract  whose  contents  are  given  above,  may  be  of  interest 
in  showing  the  universality  of  the  sentiment,  “Vanity  of  van- 
ities, all  is  vanity.”  Versification  of  this  and  the  following  ode 
is  not  attempted,  and  it  is  but  j\ist  to  add  that  these  transla- 
tions only  approximate  to  the  terseness  and  force  of  the  origi- 
nals. 


“ODE  ON  EMPTINESS. 

“ Observe  the  floating  multitudes  of  living  beings  coming  from  the  south 
and  going  to  the  north,  walking  hither  and  thither  : all  is  vanity. 

“ Pleaven  is  emptiness,  earth  is  emptiness  ; so  also  is  insignificant  man, 
dwelling  between  them. 

“ The  sun  is  emptiness  ; the  moon  is  emptiness  ; they  rise  in  the  east 
and  set  in  the  west,  and  what  is  the  advantage  of  it  ? 

“Fields  are  emptiness,  land  is  emptiness;  how  many  different  proprie- 
tors are  they  continually  exchanging ! 

“ Wives  are  vanity,  children  are  vanity  ; in  the  winding  roads  of  yellow- 
streamed  Tartarus  they  are  seldom  permitted  to  meet. 

“ Gold  is  emptiness,  silver  is  emptiness  ; after  death,  how  can  we  retain 
them  in  our  grasp  ? 

“ Houses ^re  emptiness,  mansions  are  emptiness ; in  the  twinkling  of  an 
eye,  they  are  exchanged  for  the  lonely  mound  outside  the  city  wall. 

‘ ‘ Station  is  vanity,  office  is  vanity ; when  the  tide  of  fortune  is  spent,  the 
retributions  of  justice  begin,  and  remorse  is  without  bounds. 

“ Chariots  are  vanity,  horses  are  vanity ; the  thing  remains,  the  man  de- 
parts ; a shadow  leaves  no  trace  behind. 

“ It  may  be  said  of  every  thing  in  earth  which  affords  happiness,  after  a 
little  time  the  gratification  passes  away,  and  it  is,  after  all,  but  emptiness. 

“ The  conclusion  of  all  is,  that  only  one  thing  is  real,  and  that  is  the  ef- 
fect of  virtuous  deeds  leaving  their  lasting  impress  on  our  individual  being.’’ 


232 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


An  ode  on  discontent,  from  the  same  work,  is  as  follows : 

“ODE  ON  DISCONTENT. 

“ A man  busily  employed  all  day  becomes  hungry  ; 

When  hunger  is  satisfied,  he  thinks  of  clothing. 

Abundantly  supplied  with  both  food  and  clothing, 
lie  mourns  that  he  has  in  his  house  no  fair-eyed  wife. 

Possessed  of  a charming  wife  and  beautiful  concubine, 

He  finds  that  he  is  without  suitable  vehicles  for  appearing  in  public. 
With  numerous  vehicles,  and  droves  of  horses  and  mules, 

His  land  is  found  insufficient  to  supply  his  wants. 

He  purchases  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands  of  fertile  acres, 

But,  without  official  station,  men  treat  him  with  disrespect. 

He  regards  the  seventh  and  fifth  rank  with  dissatisfaction, 

And  the  fourth  and  third  are  also  too  low  for  him. 

Advanced  to  the  first  position  of  prime  minister  at  court, 

He  conceives  the  wish  of  being  Emperor  a short  time. 

His  desires  gratified,  he  becomes  the  Son  of  Heaven, 

And  again  wishes  for  ten  thousand  ages  to  escape  death. 

His  numerous  and  foolish  longings  know  no  stopping-place  ; 

At  last  a coffin  forever  hides  him, 

And  he  passes  away,  still  hugging  his  discontent.” 

We  learn  from  these  books  that  the  idea  of  ‘the  necessity 
of  a revelation  from  heaven  is  natural,  and  that  it  is  a conclu- 
sion to  which  the  tendency  of  the  human  mind  invariably 
leads.  Man  feels  that  no  light  but  that  of  heaven  can  dispel 
the  darkness  and  doubt  in  which  he  is  involved ; and  refusing 
to  be  satisfied  without  it,  readily  accepts  the  spurious  revela- 
tions which  are  offered  him.  These  are  but  the  transcript  of 
the  popular  superstitions,  framed  by  designing  men  to  satisfy 
a felt  want,  which,  in  process  of  time  come  to  be  regarded  as 
authentic  documents ; thus  giving  to  vague  surmises  the  dig- 
nity of  revealed  truth,  and  the  higher  sanction  of  divine  au- 
thority. One  or  more  of  these  pretended  revelations  usually 
forms  the  basis  of  the  larger  and  more  noted  tracts.  Some 
of  them,  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  their  style,  and  the  im- 
portance of  the  truths  which  they  present,  have  acquired  a 
universal  celebrity,  and  may  almost  be  ranked  among  the  Chi- 
nese classics.  The  one  perhaps  most  frequently  met  with  is  a 


A REPUTED  REVELATION-. 


238 


professed  revelation  from  the  founder  and  principal  god  of  the 
Tauist  sect.  The  whole  is  worthy  of  perusal ; but  the  limits 
of  a chapter  will  only  allow  of  a few  extracts  from  different 
parts  of  it,  which  may  serve  as  a fair  sample  of  the  whole. 

“TREATISE  ON  REWARDS  AND  PUNISHMENTS. 

“ Ta-sliang  said,  Misery  and  Happiness  have  of  themselves  no  door  of  ac- 
cess to  man,  but  man  invites  them;  Virtue  and  Vice  are  connected  with 
their  appropriate  rewards  as  the  shadow  follows  the  substance.  Heaven 
and  earth  have  divinities  which  preside  over  the  sins  of  men,  and,  according 
to  the  degree  of  their  aggravation,  subtract  front  each  individual’s  merit. 
This  lessened,  misfortunes  follow  ; the  offending  man  meets  with  innumera- 
ble troubles  and  distresses  ; his  fellow-men  hate  him  ; punishment  and  sor- 
row follow  him  ; auspicious  influences  flee  from  him  ; baleful  stars  pursue 
hint ; when  the  allotments  of  fate  are  fulfilled,  he  diel  Over  the  heads  of 
men  there  are  also  the  three  divinities  of  the  Northern  Constellation,  who 
make  a record  of  all  their  offenses,  and  snatch  front  them  the  original  al- 
lotments of  fate.  * * * * * * * 

“ When  you  see  the  way  of  truth,  enter  it.  What  is  not  truth,  avoid  it. 
Watch  not  in  false  ways.  Do  not  deceive  yourself  in  committing  sins  in 
secret.  Add  to  the  store  of  your  virtues,  and  thus  increase  your  merits. 
Let  your  compassion  extend  to  every  object.  Be  loyal,  dutiful,  and  affec- 
tionate. Reform  yourself,  that  you  may  reform  others.  Pity  the  desolate, 
compassionate  the  distressed.  Honor  the  aged,  be  kind  to  the  young. 
Have  a care  not  to  harm  either  reptiles  or  plants.  Sympathize  with  the 
unfortunate,  rejoice  over  the  virtuous.  Help  those  who  are  in  difficulty, 
save  those  who  are  in  distress.  Regard  the  good  fortune  and  losses  of  others 
as  if  they  were  your  own.  Do  not  make  a display  either  of  the  faults  of 
others  or  of  your  own  excellences.  Suppress  what  is  evil,  give  currency  to 
what  is  good.  Decline  the  greater  advantage,  and  be  content  with  the  less. 
Receive  abuse  without,  resentment ; receive  favors,  as  it  were,  with  trem- 
bling. Dispense  favors  without  asking  a return.  Give  to  others  without 
after  regrets. 

“ As  regards  the  virtuous  man,  all  men  honor  him  ; heaven  protects  him  ; 
happiness  and  fortune,  follow  him  ; evil  influences  flee  far  from  him  ; di- 
vine spirits  attend  him;  whatever  he  does  will  prove  successful;  and  he 
may  aspire  to  being  one  of  the  genii  of  heaven.  If  you  wish  to  become  one 
of  the  genii  of  heaven,  it  is  necessary  to  perform  1300  meritorious  deeds  ; 
if  to  be  one  of  earth,  to  perform  300.  ****** 

“Avoid  stepping  over  a well  or  over  a fire-place;  leaping  over  food  or 
men ; destroying  children  before  or  after  birth  ; doing  things  in  a secret 
and  underhanded  manner ; singing  or  dancing  on  the  12th  or  30th  of  the 
month ; getting  in  a passion  on  the  first  day  of  the  month ; shedding  tears, 


234 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


spitting,  etc.,  with  the  face  toward  the  North  Star;  reciting  or  chanting  verses 
or  wailing  in  the  presence  of  the  Kitchen  God  ; lighting  incense-sticks  with 
fire  from  the  kitchen  ; using  filthy  fuel  in  cooking  food ; rising  and  going  out 
in  the  night  undressed  ; punishing  criminals  on  either  of  the  eight  festivals; 
spitting  at  a shooting-star ; pointing  at  the  rainbow,  or  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars;  gazing  for  a long  time  at  the  sun  or  moon  ; hunting  in  the  spring; 
cursing  with  the  face  toward  the  North  Star;  killing  turtles  and  beating 
snakes  without  a cause  ; for  such  sins  as  these,  according  as  they  are  trivial 
or  aggravated,  the  gods  who  preside  over  destiny  subtract  a smaller  or 
larger  number  of  years  from  the  allotments  of  fate.  If  punishments  still 
remain,  they  are  visited  upon  one’s  descendants.  Moreover,  if  riches  are 
acquired  by  unlawful  means,  the  retribution  falls  upon  one’s  wife,  children, 
and  family,  until  they  die  ; or,  if  their  lives  are  spared,  the  work  of  retri- 
bution is  done  by  floods,  conflagrations,  and  robbers,  destroying  property, 
and  introducing  want,  disease,  dissensions,  and  domestic  evils,  until  the 
full  price  of  ill-gotteh  wealth  is  exacted.  To  kill  another  from  revenge  is 
but  providing  a sword  for  one’s  own  destruction.  To  appropriate  to  one’s 
self  ill-gotten  gain,  is,  as  it  were,  to  allay  hunger  by  poisoned  food,  or  to 
quench  thirst  by  poisoned  wine ; not  that  it  does  not  afford  temporary  re- 
lief, but  death  quickly  follows.  If  a desire  to  do  right  arises  in  the  mind, 
though  that  desire  has  not  been  acted  upon,  propitious  divinities  are  pres- 
ent to  aid  and  bless.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  mind  harbors  evil  pur- 
poses, though  they  have  not  vet  been  carried  out,  divinities  are  also  pres- 
ent to  inflict  evil.  If  a person  has  been  guilty  of  wicked  deeds,  and  after- 
ward repents,  rcjqcts  every  thing  which  is  evil,  and  follows  after  every 
thing  which  is  good,  he  will  in  due  time  certainly  be  rewarded.  This  is 
what  is  meant  by  misery  being  changed  into  happiness.” 

The  estimation  in  which  this  production  is  held,  and  the 
benefits  which  are  supposed  to  result  from  the  use  of  it,  may 
be  gathered  from  the  following  paragraph,  which  is  appended 
to  it  in  a noted  Chinese  tract : “ The  chanting  of  it  once  a 
day  will  destroy  sin  and  cancel  guilt.  If  you  strictly  observe 
its  precepts  for  a month,  your  happiness  and  good  fortune  will 
be  secure.  If  you  follow  its  injunctions  for  two  years,  even 
your  remote  ancestors  will  immediately  ascend  to  heaven. 

If  you  persevere  in  willing  and  permanent  obedience  to  it, 
your  days  will  be  indefinitely  jn'olonged ; the  gods  of  heaven 
will  respect  and  reverence  you,  and  you  will  be  enrolled 
among  the  chief  of  the  genii.” 

It  is  a singular  fact  in  connection  with  this  subject,  that  m 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  CHINESE  TRACTS. 


285 


books  of  this  class  are  offered  as  presents,  not  only  to  men, 
but  also  to  the  gods,  and  still  more  singular,  that  it  is  sup- 
posed that  they  are  conveyed  to  the  deity  for  whom ‘they  are 
designed  by  being  burned  up  ! This  shows  the  low  estimation 
in  which  gods  are  held,  inasmuch  as  they  are  supposed  to  be 
instructed  by  the  productions  of  men,  while  they  are  depend- 
ent upon  men  for  putting  them  in  possession  of  these  produc- 
tions. Numerous  instances  are  given  of  dangerous  diseases 
being  instantly  cured,  and  extraordinary  benefits  conferred  in 
consequence  of  offering  these  books  to  certain  of  the  gods. 

With  reference  to  the  influence  of  Chinese  tracts,  it  can 
not  be  doubted  that,  in  the  absence  of  any  thing  better,  they 
have  the  effect  of  checking  and  restraining  the  vices  of  the 
people  by  means  of  presenting  prominently  the  doctrine  of 
future  rewards  and  punishments.  The  exhortations  to  per- 
form most  of  the  duties  enj  oined  find  a hearty  response  in  the 
hearts  of  those  to  whom  they  are  addressed,  while  the  sanc- 
tion of  deities  which  are  both  reverenced  and  feared  gives  to 
them  additional  force.  At  the  same  time,  many  of  the  con- 
siderations which  are,  in  reality,  empty  and  frivolous,  are  pe- 
culiarly adapted  to  work  upon  the  superstitious  notions  of 
the  Chinese. 

From  a consideration  of  this  subject,  we  are  better  able  to 
understand  the  light  in  Av’hich  Christian  books  are  regarded 
and  received  by  the  people. 

The  distribution  of  moral  and  religious  tracts  is  a practice 
with  which  they  are  already  familiar,  and  one  which  immedi- 
ately begets  a high  degree  of  respect  and  confidence  for  those 
engaged  in  it.  There  is,  however,  a vast  amount  of  error  and 
prejudice  to  be  overcome  before  our  doctrines  and  our  object 
can  be  appreciated.  We  are  regarded  as  good  but,  perhaps, 
misguided  men,  who  are  endeavoring  to  introduce  a new  god, 
Jesus.  In  examining  our  books  and  comparing  them  Avith 
their  OAvn,  they  are  disappointed  in  finding  so  little  promi- 
nence given  to  “ the  five  relations.”  The  ideas  presented  are 
foreign,  and  many  of  them  do  not  strike  them  Avith  as  much 


236 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


force  as  the  views  presented  in  their  own  works.  The  liter- 
ary'style  of  most  Christian  tracts  is  also  comparatively  in- 
ferior— a matter  of  great  importance  in  their  estimation. 
When  reference  is  made  to  one  supreme  God,  his  spiritual 
nature,  his  sovereignty,  and  his  providence,  these  ideas  are 
strange,  and  hard  to  be  understood.  Most  of  the  evidences 
of  Christianity  will  be  readily  admitted ; but  to  their  minds 
no  miracles  are  more  wonderful,  and  no  fulfillment  of  prophe- 
cies more  extraordinary  than  the  spurious  ones  with  which 
they  are  already  familiar.  No  ideas  of  future  happiness  or 
misery  are  so  striking  and  so  readily  received  as  those  the 
human  mind  has  framed  to  please  itself ; no  way  of  salvation 
from  future  punishment  is  so  willingly  accepted  as  that  based 
on  self-righteousness. 

Another  difficulty  in  writing  Christian  tracts  exists  in  the 
Chinese  language  itself.  Having  been  originally  employed  as 
a vehicle  for  conveying  heathen  and  idolatrous  ideas,  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  use  it  without  bringing  up  those  old  associations 
which  are  everywhere  connected  with  it.  The  language  is 
rich  in  religious  terms,  and  has  some  word  approximating  to 
almost  every  idea  -we  wish  to  present,  though,  in  nearly  every 
case,  with  a different  meaning,  a different  use,  and  different 
associations.  The  question  is,  whether  we  shall  coin  new 
words,  or  use  old  ones  ; whether  we  shall  encounter  obscurity 
on  the  one  hand,  or  misconception  on  the  other.  We  find, 
then,  even  here,  where  we  naturally  hope  to  gain  easy  access 
to  the  hearts  of  the  people,  and  to  obtain  a great  advantage 
by  the  use  of  a most  efficient  agency  prepared  to  our  hand, 
that  this  door  of  access  is,  in  a measure,  barred,  and  this 
means  of  doing  good  rendered  nugatory. 


CHINESE  FAMILY  TIES. 


237 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

SOCIAL  CUSTOMS,  ETC. 

The  Family  Tie  strong  in  China. — Minute  Distinctions  of  Relationships. — 
The  Position  of  Women  in  China. — Chinese  Politeness. — Hospitality. — 
Costumes. — The  Queue. — Small  Feet  of  the  Women. — Chinese  Houses. 
— Food  and  Mode  of  Eating. — The  Use  of  Tea. — Chinese  Wine. — The 
Use  of  Tobacco.  — General  Want  of  Cleanliness. — Betrothals  and 
Marriages. — Polygamy. — Infanticide. — Slavery. — Funerals. — Coffins. 
— Graves  and  Grave-yards.  — The  extravagant  and  burdensome  Ex- 
penses of  Chinese  Weddings  and  Funerals. 

The  family  tie  in  China  is  strong,  and  the  people  are  clan- 
nish. They  seldom  change  their  place  of  residence,  and  most 
of  them  live  where  their  ancestors  have  lived  for  many  gener- 
ations. You  will  frequently  find  the  larger  proportion  of  a 
small  village  hearing  the  same  name,  in  which  case  the  vil- 
lage often  takes  its  name  from  the  family,  as  Chang  Kia , the 
the  Chang  Family ; Sie  Kia,  the  Sie  Family. 

Books  on  filial  piety  and  the  domestic  relations  recommend 
sons  not  to  leave  their  parents  when  married,  but  to  live  to- 
gether lovingly  and  harmoniously- as  one  family.  This  theory 
is  carried  out  in  practice  in  many,  and  perhaps  to  some  ex- 
tent, in  most  instances,  though  there  as  elsewhere  it  is  very 
often  found  more  satisfactory  for  each  married  couple'  to  have 
a home  of  their  own. 

In  the  division  of  property,  some  regard  is  had  to  primo- 
geniture ; but  different  sons  share  nearly  equally.  The  eldest 
simply  has  a somewhat  larger  portion,  and  certain  household 
relics  and  valuables. 

Nice  distinctions  are  made  betwreen  different  degrees  of 
consanguinity,  and  the  names  of  the  varied  relationships  are 
almost  endless.  Not  only  do  they  call  the  wife’s  parents  by 


238 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


different  titles  from  those  given  to  their  own,  but  also  the 
children  of  brothers  by  a name  denoting  a very  different  and 
much  nearer  relationship  than  that  sustained  to  the  children 
of  sisters,  and  so  on. 

The  position  of  woman  is  intermediate  between  that  which 
she  occupies  in  Christian  and  in  Mohammedan  and  other  hea- 
then countries.  The  manner  in  which  they  regard  their  lot  may 
be  inferred  from  the  fact,  related  in  a previous  chapter,  that 
their  most  earnest  desire  and  prayer  in  worshiping  in  Bud- 
dhist temples  is,  generally,  that  they  may  be  men  in  the  next 
state  of  existence.  In  many  families  girls  have  no  individual 
names,  but  are  simply  called  No.  Two,  Three,  Four,  etc. 
When  married,  they  are  Mr.  So-and-so’s  wife,  and  when  they 
have  sons,  they  are  such-and-such  a boy’s  mother.  They  live 
i.i  a great  measure  secluded,  take  no  part  in  general  society, 
and  are  expected  to  retire  when  a stranger  or  an  acquaintance 
out  of  the  family  of  the  opposite  sex  enters  the  house. 
Among  the  poor,  whose  dwellings  are  small,  and  who  are 
obliged  to  depend  upon  the  females  of  the  family  to  do  the 
work,  it  is  impossible  to  carry  out  fully  these  rules  of  seclu- 
sion, and  the  separation  of  the  sexes  is  less  marked.  In  some 
localities  the  people  are  more  strict  in  this  regard  than  in 
others.  I heard  in  the  province  of  Shantung  of  a stranger 
being  driven  but  of  a village  by  a mob  on  account  of  taking 
the  liberty  of  asking  a woman  in  the  street  the  road  to  an 
adjoining  town. 

The  claim  of  one’s  parents  and  brothers  upon  his  affections 
and  love  is  considered  to  be  paramount  to  that  of  his  wife. 
A reason  given  for  this  doctrine  in  a celebrated  Chinese  work 
which  treats  of  the  domestic  relations  and  duties  is,  that  the 
loss  of  a brother  is  irreparable,  but  that  of  a wife  is  not ! 
Women  are  treated  with  more  respect  and  consideration  as 
they  advance  in  years ; mothers  are  regarded  with  great  af- 
fection and  tenderness,  and  grandmothers  are  sometimes  al- 
most worshiped. 

It  is  but  just  to  say  that  a strong  attachment  often  springs 


CHINESE  POLITENESS. 


239 


up  between  husband  and  wife,  though  they  have  had  nothing 
to  do  in  making  choice  of  each  other,  and  have  never  seen 
each  other  before  marriage.  It  should  be  further  stated,  that 
the  Chinese  have  found  the  theory  of  the  inferiority  of  woman 
a very  difficult  one  to  carry  out  in  practice.  Perhaps  one  reason 
why  they' deny  education  to  the  “weaker”  sex  is  because 
they  find  it  sufficiently  difficult  to  keep  her  in  her  proper  place 
without  it.  While  customs  and  theories  vary,  human  nature 
and  woman’s  nature  are  the  same  the  world  over.  Women 
in  China  have  also  their  ideas  of  “Woman’s  Rights.”  There 
are  many  families  in  which  the  superiority  of  her  will  and 
authority  is  sufficiently  manifest,  though  not  cheerfully  ac- 
knowledged ; and  the  most  that  we  can  say  is,  that  “ hen- 
pecked husbands  ” are  perhaps  not  so  numerous  as  in  America 
and  Europe. 

The  rules  and  conventionalities  which  regulate  social  life 
are  exceedingly  minute  and  formal.  Politeness  is  a science, 
and  gracefulness  of  manners  a study  and  discipline.  Many  pe- 
culiarities of  Chinese  manners  seem  to  be  almost  excessive. 
The  persistent,  graceful,  and  successful  effort  of  a retiring  vis- 
itor to  pass  from  the  reception-room  through,  perhaps,  two  or 
three  courts,  without  turning  his  back  upon  his  host,  backing, 
bowing,  and  going  sideways  by  turns ; and  his  earnest  and  oft- 
repeated  wish  that  the  host  should  not  take  the  trouble  to  ac- 
company him  to  the  outer  door,  and  the  as  oft-repeated  assev- 
eration of  the  host  that  his  feelings  of  gratitude  and  respect 
oblige  him  to  do  so,  are  calculated  at  first  sight  to  provoke  a 
smile.  The  bowings,  compliments,  and  congratulations  which 
are  required  in  the  meeting  of  two  officials  are  so  numerous 
and  difficult  to  be  gone  through  with  properly,  that  when 
such  persons  come  upon  each  other  by  accident  in  the  street, 
they  pass  sometimes  without  apparent  recognition,  as  there  is 
no  proper  medium  or  compromise  between  the  formal  courte- 
sies requii-ed  and  ignoring  each  other  altogether.  When  a 
number  of  individuals  are  walking  together,  you  may  gener- 
ally infer  their  age  or  rank  or  position  by  the  order  in  which 


240 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


they  naturally  and  almost  unconsciously  range  themselves. 
Literary  men  and  gentlemen  are  expected  to  walk  the  streets 
with  a dignified,  measured,  and  superior  bearing. 

The  excessive  politeness  of  the  Chinese  is  noticed  in  the 
language  as  well  as  the  manners  of  the  people.  In  asking  a 
friend  his  place  of  residence,  though  you  know  him  to  be  poor, 
and  that  he  probably  occupies  an  inferior  house,  you  must 
use  the  expression  “ Where  is  your  mansion  ” or  “ honorable 
mansion?”  and  he  replies,  “ My  hut”  or  “hovel”  is  in  such  a 
place.  This  last  expression  is  equally  used  by  wealthy  per- 
sons living  in  fine  and  costly  houses.  The  following,  and  a 
great  variety  of  similar . expressions,  are  constantly  heard : 
“ What  is  your  honorable  age  ?”  “ My  empty  ” or  “ worthless 
number  is  forty-five.”  “ Is  your  honorable  wife  living  ?” 
“The  mean  person  of  the  inner  apartment  is  still  in  life.” 
“ Is  your  noble  son  doing  well  at  school  ?”  “ The  contempti- 

ble little  dog  has  learned  a few  characters.”  “ Indeed,  you  are 
too  polite  and  deferential.”  “I  dare  not  presume  to  claim 
such  a reputation.”  The  language  used  in  the  epistolary  cor- 
respondence of  literary  men  abounds  in  words  and  phrases 
containing  graceful  and  delicate  compliments,  and  expressions 
of  respect  for  the  person  addressed,  together  with  correspond- 
ing ones  of  self-depreciation.  These  forms  of  expression  are 
used  with  about  as  much  regard  to  their  literal  meaning  as  in 
our  own  language,  “ Your  most  obedient  servant,”  etc. 

The  people  are  hospitable  and  generous  to  a fault — their 
desire  to  appear  well  in  these  respects  often  leading  them  into 
expenditures  entirely  disproportionate  to  their  means.  J) 

{ When,  under  the  influence  of  passion  excited  by  injustice 
or  insult,  quarrels  arise  in  the  family  or  on  the  street,  the  wom- 
en resort  to  cursing  and  abuse,  which  are  violent  and  extreme 
in  proportion  to  the  length  of  time  during  which  the  feelings 
which  prompted  them  have  been  restrained.  Men  bluster  and 
threaten  in  a manner  quite  frightful  to  those  imaccustomed  to 
it,  but  seldom  come  to  blows.  In  cases  of  deep  resentment, 
the  injured  party  often  adopts  a mode  of  revenge  which  is 


THE  CHINESE  COSTUME. 


241 


very  characteristic.  Instead  of  killing  the  object  of  his  hate, 
he  determines  rather  to  kill  himself.  In  this  way  he  would  fix 
the  stigma  of  murder  upon  his  adversary,  whom  the  people 
generally  regard  as  the  cause  of  this  catastrophe,  and  respons- 
ible for  it.  A person  under  these  circumstances  sometimes 
commits  suicide  by  hanging  himself  in  his  own  house ; but 
the  most  common  mode  is  to  swallow  opium,  and  then  hire 
coolies  to  carry  him  to  die  at  the  door  of  his  enemy.  An  ad- 
ditional motive  leading  to  self-destruction  is  probably  the  hope 
of  having  greater  advantages  for  inflicting  injury  and  gaining 
revenge  as  a disembodied  spirit  than  while  living  in  the  flesh. 
The  suicide,  at  least,  enjoys  the  anticipation  of  the  terrible 
fright  which  he  will  give  to  his  adversary. 

. £,The  Chinese  costume  of  both  sexes  is  loose  and  flowing, 
and  changes  in  fashion  are  slow,  and  slight  in  degree,  as  com- 
pared with  ours.  The  masses  of  the  population  wear  home- 
spun  cotton.  The  wealthier  classes  wear  silks,  satins,  gauzes, 
furs,  and  other  more  costly  materials.  Summer  clothing  is 
very  thin  and  light,  while  the  number  of  garments  and  amount 
of  clothing  worn  in  the  winter  is  quite  remarkable,  and  does 
away  with  the  necessity  of  using  fire-places  and  stoves.'' 

4 The  official  rank  and  position  of  the  Chinese  are  indica- 
ted by  the  color  and  peculiarities  of  buttons,  feathers,  caps, 
aq^  embroidered  insignia  on  their  garments.  These  official 
distinctions  are  much  regarded.  In  meeting  with  a company 
of  foreigners,  they  are  very  apt  to  notice  us  carefully  to  discov- 
er by  what  outward  badge  or  mark  our  rank  is  indicated,  and 
are  apt  to  conclude  that  it  is  by  the  variety  of  caps  or  hats  we 
wear,  or,  perhaps,  by  our  using  or  not  using  walking-sticks,  or 
using  those  of  a particular  kind.  ^ 
i 1 he  men  shave  the  front  part  of  their  heads,  reserving  a 
small  portion  on  the  top  and  back  pact,  which  is  left  to  grow, 
and  is  braided  into  a queue.  This  was  not  a Chinese  custom 
originally,  but  belongs  properly  to  the  Tartars,  and  was  im- 
posed upon  the  Chinese  as  a token  of  subjection  to  the  present 
dynasty.  It  has  now  become  a necessary  part  of  one’s  dress, 

L 


242 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


ancl  is  attended  to  with  a great  deal  of  care.  Fops  and  ex- 
quisites add  false  hair  to  make  it  longer  and  larger,  and  also 
braid  black  silk  thread  to  the  end  of  it,  increasing  its  length 
so  that  it  almost  sweeps  the  ground.  The  women  comb  their 
hair  back  straight  from  the  forehead  and  sides  of  the  head, 
arranging  it  in  a style  very  elaborate  and  artistic,  adding  oft- 
entimes a profusion  of  gold  and  silver  ornaments,  and  natu- 
ral and  artificial  flowers.  With  a general  resemblance,  the 
styles  in  which  the  women  dress  their  hair  vary  considerably 
in  different  parts  of  the  empire,  and  indeed  of  the  same  prov- 
ince. 

The  practice  of  binding  girl’s  feet  is  almost  universal. 

There  is  a class  of  women 
in  Canton,  and  also  in  Fu- 
chow,  who  have  natural  feet ; 
but  these  are  the  rare  ex- 
ceptions. In  all  other  parts 
of  the  empire  which  I have 
visited,  women  of  all  classes 
conform  indiscriminately  to 
this  objectionable  custom, 
and  large-footed  women  are 
almost  unknown,  except 
those  who  have  come  fr#m 
Canton  of  the  class  already 
referred  to,  and  women 
in  the  Tartar  cities,  who 
do  not  adopt  this  Chinese 
practice.  There  is,  however, 
a marked  difference  in  the 
degree  in  which  feet  are  com- 
pressed. Country  women 
an<?  the  poorer  classes  have  feet  about  half  the  natural  size, 
while  those  of  the  genteel  or  fashionable  class  are  only  about 
three  inches  long. 

The  process  of  compressing  is  commenced  after  girls  have 


LARGE  OR  NATURAL-FOOTED  WOMAN  AT  FU- 
CHOW.  , 


THE  CUSTOM  OF  BINDING  FEET. 


243 


thoroughly  learned  to  walk,  and  have  developed  the  muscles 
for  locomotion  — generally  at  the  age  of  five  years.  A 
cotton  bandage  two  or  three  inches  wide  is  wound  tightly 
about  the  foot  in  different  directions,  and,  in  the  case  of  the 
higher  classes,  the  foot  can  hardly  be  said  to  grow  from  this 
time.  It  assumes  the  shape  of  an 
acute  triangle,  the  big  toe  form- 
ing the  acute  angle,  and  the  other 
toes  being  bent  under  the  foot, 
and  almost  lost  or  absorbed.  A 
strong  resemblance  to  the  gait  of 
these  women  may  be  produced 
by  an  attempt  to  walk  on  one’s 
heels  without  allowing  the  toes  to 
touch  the  floor.  Strange  as  it 
may  seem,  women  having  small 
feet,  less  than  the  average  size, 
walk  ten,  fifteen,  and  more  miles 
a day,  to  worship  at  Buddhist 
temples.  Though  the  effect  of 
this  custom  is  to  jn’oduce  real  de- 
formity, and  a miserable,  totter- 
ing gait,  even  foreigners  naturally 
come  to  associate  it  with  gentili- 
ty and  good-breeding,  and  to  es- 
timate the  character  and  standing  of  women  much  as  the 
Chinese  do,  by  the  size  of  their  feet. 

This  custom  has  existed  for  a long  time,  and  the  Chinese 
can  not  account  satisfactorily  for  its  origin.  It  probably  arose 
from  a strife  among  women  for  the  pre-eminence  of  having  the 
smallest  feet,  fond  mothers  commencing  to  bind  their  daugh- 
ters’ feet  before  they  were  grown,  and  the  time  for  beginning 
the  pi'ocess  being  gradually  changed  to  an  earlier  period. 
The  Chinese  insist  upon  it  that  the  custom  of  compressing 
women’s  feet  is  neither  in  as  bad  taste,  nor  so  injurious  to 
the  health,  as  that  of  foreign  ladies  compressing  the  waist. 


244 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


There,  as  here,  not  to  follow  the  prevailing  fashion  is  almost 
to  make  one’s  self  an  outcast  from  society. 

Chinese  houses  are  ordinarily  furnished  with  chairs,  tables, 
stands,  or  tea-poys,  and  bedsteads.  Tables  are  nearly  uniform 
in  size,  furnishing  a seat  for  one  person  on  each  of  its  four 
sides.  When  large  companies  are  entertained,  separate  tables 
are  added  indefinitely,  so  that  the  size  of  a company  invited 
to  a feast  is  described  by  the  number  of  tables  required. 
The  two  sexes  eat  separately  in  different  rooms.  A great 
deal  of  urging  and  declining  is  gone  through  with  in  deter- 
mining who  shall  take  the  first  place  at  each  table,  and  in  giv- 
ing proper  places  to  other  guests.  In  ordinary  meals,  differ- 
ent members  of  the  family  of  both  sexes  sit  down  together 
with  much  less  formality. 

On  the  tables  of  the  rich  and  the  poor,  morning,  noon,  and 
night,  you  see,  with  few  exceptions,  the  same  unvarying  buck- 
et of  plain  boiled  rice,  or,  in  the  Northern  provinces,  millet, 
which  takes  the  place  of  it.  The  difference  in  the  quality  and 
expense  of  the  food  of  the  rich,  as  compared  with  that  of  the 
poor,  consists  principally  in  the  kinds  of  “ relish  ” eaten  with 
the  rice  or  millet.  The  poor  have  simply  a dish  of  salt  veg- 
etables, or  of  fresh  or  salt  fish,  or  two  or  three  of  these,  or 
other  similar  dishes  combined,  which  cost  comparatively  lit- 
tle, in  addition  to  what  they  depend  uj5on  as  the  main  article 
of  subsistence.  The  rich  have  pork,  fowls,  eggs,  fish,  and 
game,  prepared  in  various  ways.  Before  each  chair  is  placed 
an  empty  bowl  and  two  chop-sticks,  while  the  dishes  contain- 
ing meat,  vegetables,  fish,  etc.,  occupy  the  centre  of  the  table, 
the  food  which  they  contain  being  cut  up  in  small  pieces.  The 
chop-sticks  are  about  eight  inches  long,  and  resemble  some- 
what a common  pen-holder.  They  are  made  of  bamboo, 
wood,  or  ivory.  When  seats  are  taken  at  the  table,  a serv- 
ant, or  one  of  the  women  of  the  family,  fills  the  bowls  with 
hot  rice.  Following  the  lead  of  the  person  at  the  head  of  the 
table,  each  individual  takes  uj3  his  or  her  chop-sticks  in  the 
right  hand,  and  holding  them  between  the  thumb  and  fingers 


ARTICLES  OF  FOOD. 


245 


in  such  a manner  that  the  lower  ends  approach  eac^  other  like 
a pair  of  pincers  or  tongs,  selects  one  or  more  mouthfuls 
from  the  dishes  in  the  centre  of  the  table.  Then  the  bowl  of 
rice  is  raised  to  the  lips  by  the  left  hand,  and  the  rice  is  push- 
ed into  the  mouth  by  the  chop-sticks  in  the  right.  The  eat- 
ing of  a Chinese  meal  consists  in  a constant  alternation  be- 
tween picking  up  mouthfuls  from  the  plates  in  the  middle  of 
the  table  and  taking  rice  from  the  bowl  in  the  manner  de- 
scribed. When  a feast  is  made,  a great  variety  of  dishes  is 
served  in  numerous  courses,  and  rice  is  not  brought  on  till  to- 
ward the  close. 

The  Chinese  find  as  much  difficulty,  and  make  as  awkward 
work  in  using  knives  and  forks  as  we  do  in  using  chop-sticks. 
The  latter  they  regard  as  much  the  more  suitable  and  con- 
venient, and,  in  using  them,  will  take  up  and  hold  firmly  ob- 
jects so  small  that  they  would  slip  between  the  tines  of  a 
fork.  To  their  view,  the  use  of  chop-sticks  is  an  evidence  of 
a superior  culture ; and  the  use  of  such  barbarous  instruments 
as  knives  And  forks,  and  cutting  or  tearing  the  meat  from  the 
bones  on  the  table,  instead  of  having  the  food  properly  pre- 
pared in  the  kitchen,  evidences  a lower  type  of  civilization. 

The  wide  and  almost  universal  prevalence  of  the  impres- 
sion that  “rats,  cats,  and  puppies”  are  articles  of  food  in 
common  use  among  the  people,  is  a notable  example  of  a lo- 
cal and  exceptional  custom  being  taken  for  a national  and 
universal  one,  and  producing  false  ideas  of  a people  in  the 
minds  of  whole  nations.  I have  never  seen  or  heard  of  a rat, 
cat,  or  puppy  being  eaten  in  China,  though  I presume  they 
may  be  occasionally  by  paupers.  I have  been  told  that  dogs 
are  sometimes  eaten  in  Canton.  It  was  here,  no  doubt,  that 
this  rumor  originated.  Some  early  visitor  in  China,  seeking 
for  sensational  news,  has  sent  home  this  item  of  information. 
In  our  ignorance  of  that  country  this  interesting  fact  was  ea- 
gerly made  use  of,  and  illustrated  by  a special  engraving  in 
that  part  of  the  geography  which  treated  of  China.  The  ideas 
suggested  by  this  engraving  of  the  geographers  of  twenty  or 


246 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


thirty  years  ago  constitute  a large  proportion  of  what  many 
of  our  people  know,  or  think  they  know  of  China. 

Beef  is  never  exposed  for  sale  in  the  Chinese  markets. 
The  meat  of  the  few  cattle  which. are  used  for  ploughing  is, 
wheo  they  are  killed,  disposed  of  privately,  almost  clandestine- 
ly. There  is  a strong  and  almost  universal  prejudice  against 
eating  beef,  and  the  practice  of-  doing  so  is  declaimed  against 
in  some  of  the  moral  tracts.  The  reason  generally  given  for 
this  prejudice  is  that  we  are  so  much  indebted  to  the  patient 
labors  of  the  ox  and  cow  for  ploughing  our  fields.  Milk  is 
hardly  used  at  all  in  the  eighteen  provinces;  and  in  many 
places  our  practice  of  drinking  it  and  using  it  in  cooking  is  re- 
garded with  the  utmost  disgust.  In  all  the  open  ports  beef 
and  milk  are  supplied  for  the  use  of  foreigners. 

Tea  is  a universal  beverage  in  the  South,  and  is  much 
prized  in  the  North;  though  in  the  provinces  where  it  is  not 
produced — and  is  for  that  reason  more  expensive — the  poorer 
people  can  hardly  afford  it.  It  is  generally  taken  rather  weak. 
It  is  common  to  steep  it  in  a tea-pot,  but  the  most  polite  way 
to  serve  guests  (and  no  visitor  or  caller  enters  a house  without 
having  it  offered  him)  is  to  have  the  servant  put  a few  leaves 
in  each  cup,  then  fill  the  cups  with  boiling  water  from  the  tea- 
kettle, and  place  over  them  the  covers  which  always  belong  to 
them. 

There  is  a beverage  very  common  in  China  which  is  called 
by  them  lao-tsiu,  and  by  foreigners  Chinese  wine,  though  it 
bears  very  little  resemblance  to.  any  article  in  Western  lands 
called  by  that  name.  It  is  manufactured  from  certain  kinds 
of  rice  and  millet,  though  I am  unable  to  say  by  what  process. 
It  is  always  drunk  warm,  and  its  stimulating  or  intoxicating 
properties  are  about  equal  to,  if  they  do  not  exceed,  those  of 
light  grape  wine.  Many  people  drink  this  wine  with  their 
meals  habitually.  It  is  always  freely  used  at  weddings,  and  on 
other  festal  occasions.  Old  men  especially  are  recommended 
to  make  use  of  it  as  a stimulant  to  promote  digestion.  A 
spirit,  called  Siao-tsm  or  Sam-shu,  is  distilled  from  this  wine, 


r- 


1»ABT  OF  A BRIDAL  PROCESSION  EN  ROUTE  TJ  THE  HOUSE  OF  T1IE  BRIDEGROOM  ON  THE  WEDDING-DAY. 


CHINESE  WEDDINGS. 


24<  I 

which  is  very  strong  and  intoxicating.  Drunkenness  in  Chi- 
na is  tare,  as  compared  with  W estern  countries. 

Nearly  all  the  men  and  many  of  the  women  smoke  tobac- 
co, but  generally  with  moderation.  They  have  not  yet  reached 
the  point  of  chewing  it,  and  show  no’  disposition  to  imitate 
the  example  of  foreigners  in  this  respect.  The  proportion  of 
opium-smokers  is  not  large,  as  compared  to  the  whole  popu- 
lation. 

The  want  of  cleanly  habits  presents  one  of  the  most  disa- 
greeable features  of  Chinese  life  and  character.  Houses,  even 
those  of  the  rich,  have  generally  a dusty  and  untidy  appear- 
anceA  Under-clothes  are  not  often  changed.  Clean  bed-linen 
is  unknown.  Parasitic  vermin  are  too  common  to  be  a dis- 
grace, and  offensive  sights  and  smells  are  so  familiar  to  the 
people  from  infancy  that  they  do  not  seem  to  be  affected  by 
them  as  we  are.  N 

Weddings  in  China  are  celebrated  with  a great  deal  of 
formality  and  expense.  Betrothals  are  generally  contracted 
at  a very  early  age.  Persons  are  never  betrothed  of  the  same 
family  name,  however  distant  the  relationship.  The  initiative 
is  almost  always  taken  by  a class  of  women  called  “ go-be- 
tweens,” or  match-makers.  They  are  a class  employed  at 
weddings  and  funerals  in  superintending  the  toilet,  and  afford 
ing  assistance  as  servants  generally.  As  they  go  about  con- 
stantly from  family  to  family,  they  are  familiarly  acquainted 
Avith  every  one  in  the  neighborhood,  and  suggest  to  parents 
where  they  may  find  girls  who  would  make  a desirable  match 
for  their  sons.  They  form  the  medium  for  carrying  on  com- 
munications between  the  two  families.  It  would  be  regarded 
as  improper  and  indelicate  for  the  parents  of  either  party  to 
ask  to  see  the  other,  or  for  parents  to  arrange  the  matter 
themselves,  without  the  intervention  of  these  conventional 
“go-betweens”  or  others  who  perform  the  same  offices.  As 
for  the  boys  or  young  men,  they  are  supposed  to  be  entirely 
indifferent  as  to  the  whole  matter ; and  the  idea  of  courtship, 
love-letters,  etc.,  would,  according  to  Chinese  views  of  proprie- 

L 2 


250 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


died  when  very  young  boys.  In  many  instances  these  widows 
who  have  never  been  married  spend  their  lives  with  the  par- 
ents of  their  deceased  husbands,  and  devote  themselves  to 
ministering  to  and  nursing  them. 

The  preliminaries,  formalities,  ceremonies,  and  superstitions 
connected  with  marriage,  would,  if  given  in  full,  almost  fill  a 
volume.  Previous  to  the  wedding-day  the  bride  has  her  eye- 
brows pulled  out,  so  that  she  is  recognized  ever  afterward  as 


ty,  be  quite  shocking  to  all  right-minded  persons.  The  be- 
trothal is  consummated  by  the  exchange  of  presents,  afld  the 
making  over  to  the  parents  of  the  groom  a formal  document 
or  agreement.  The  relation  of  husband  and  wife  is  thus  con- 
stituted, and  the  engagement  is  regarded  as  almost  as  sacred 
and  binding  as  if  the  marriage  had  been  performed.  Chinese 
women  sometimes  live  as  widows  for  life,  whose  husbands 


BRIDE  AND  BRIDEGROOM  WORSHIPING  THE  TABLETS  OF  IIIS  DECEASED  ANCESTORS. 


POLYGAMY  IN  CHINA. 


251 


a married  woman.  On  the  morning  of  the  “lucky  day” 
chosen  for  the  marriage,  she  is  carried  from  her  own  home  to 
that  of  her  future  husband  in  a beautiful  and  highly  orna- 
mented bridal  chair.  The  religious  part  of  the  ceremony 
consists  in  the  bride  and  groom’s  worshiping  together  the 
spirit-tablets  of  the  ancestors  of  the  groom.  The  parties  first 
see  each  other’s  faces  when,  seated  by  the  bridal  bed,  the 
bride’s  veil  is  removed,  and  the  two  parties  drink  wine  out  of 
the  same  cup.  The  day  is  spent  in  feasting,  congratulations, 
complimenting  the  bride,  and  general  hilarity. 

In  the  province  of  Shantung,  in  the  north  of  China,  wed- 
dings are  celebrated  in  the  night,  and  remind  one  very  forci- 
bly of  the  Jewish  marriage  customs  referred  to  in  the  para- 
ble of  the  virgins,  hi  the  twenty-fifth  chapter  of  Matthew.  I 
once  attended  one  of  these  weddings.  The  house  was  full  of 
guests,  the  bridal  chamber  was  beautifully  furnished  and  orna- 
mented, and  every  thing  was  in  readiness  for  the  reception  of 
the  bride  when  the  bridegroom  should  make  his  appe'arance 
with  her.  We  waited  a long  time  till  all  were  impatient,  and 
some  drowsy,  and  persons  would  frequently  go  out  with  a lan- 
tern to  see  if  there  were  any  signs  of  his  coming ; and  it  was 
not  till  near  midnight  that  the  cry  was  heard,  “ The  bride- 
groom conieth  : go  ye  out  to  meet  him.” 

Polygamy  is  not  common,  and  is  only  considered  allowa- 
ble, or,  rather,  respectable,  under  special  circumstances.  The 
saying  occurs  in  the  writings  of  the  philosopher  Mencius  : 
“ There  are  three  kinds  of  filial  impiety,  the  greatest  of  which 
is  to  be  without  male  descendants.”  It  is  regarded  as  of  the 
greatest  importance  that  every  family  should  have  a son,  not 
only  to  perpetuate  the  family  name,  but,  more  especially,  to 
make  sacrificial  offerings,  or  feed  the  spirits  of  deceased  an- 
cestors. Hence,  if  a person  has  no  children  at  the  age  of  for- 
ty, it  is  expected  that  he  will  take  another  wjfe.  The  first 
wife  retains  her  original  position  in  the  family ; and,  if  chil- 
dren are  born  of  the  second,  they  regard  the  first  also  as  their 
mother,  and  she  has  the  principal  care  and  oversight  of  them. 


252 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


Infanticide  prevails  to  a greater  or  less  extent  in  certain 
parts  of  the  empire,  and  is  confined  almost  exclusively  to  fe- 
male children.  The  existence  of  moral  tracts  denouncing  this 
practice  and  warning  the  people  to  avoid  it,  is  sufficient  evi- 
dence both  of  the  prevalence  of  the  custom,  and  of  the  acknowl- 
edged wrong  or  immorality  of  it.  In  some  places,  as  about 
Fuchow,  infanticide  is  common  ; in  other  parts  of  the  empire 
it  is  very  rarely  that  you  find  well-authenticated  instances  of 
it.  In  poor  families  which  have  a large  number  of  children, 
infants  frequently  die  for  want  of  sufficient  care  and  nursing, 
and  perhaps  without  many  regrets  on  the  part  of  the  parents ; 
but  these  cases  could  hardly  be  properly  included  in  what  is 
generally  called  infanticide.  * 

^ The  large  number  of  castaway  bodies  of  dead  infants  seen 
in  many  parts  of  China  is  often  regarded,  though  unjustly,  as 
evidence  of  the  prevalence  of  this  crime.  Their  bodies  are 
wrapped  up  in  a mat  and  thrown  in  the  river,  or  by  the  side 
of  the"  city  wall,  or  hung  from  the  branches  of  trees  to  keep 
them  from  the  dogs,  or,  which  is  very  often  the  case,  thrown 
into  structures  called  “ baby-houses  ” — little  buildings,  with  a 
small  hole  in  one  side,  erected  by  benevolent  persons  for  this 
very  purpose. 

This  denial  of  burial  to  infants  is  due,  at  least  in  many 
places,  to  the  following  superstition  : When  they  die,  it  is  sup- 
posed  that  their  bodies  were  inhabited  by  the  spirit  of  a de- 
ceased creditor  of  a previous  state  of  existence.  The  child 
during  its  sickness  may  be  cared  for  with  the  greatest  tender- 
ness, and  no  expense  spared  in  employing  a physician  and  pro- 
curing medicine  ; but  if  it  dies,  parental  love  is  turned  to  hate 
and  resentment,  and  it  is  called  Twan-ming  Jvwei  — “short- 
lived spirit  ” or  “ devil.”  It  is  regarded  as  an  enemy  and  in- 
truder in  the  family,  which  has  been  exacting  satisfaction  for 
the  old,  unpaid  debt ; and  having  occasioned  a great  deal  of 
anxiety,  trouble,  and  expense,  has  left  nothing  to  show  for  it 
but  disappointment.  The  uncared-for  and  uncoffined  little 
body  is  cast  away  anywhere ; and  as  it  is  carried  out  of  the 


THE  PRACTICE  OF  INFANTICIDE. 


253 


door  the  house  is  swept,  crackers  are  fired,  and  gongs  beaten 
to  frighten  the  spirit,  so  that  it  may  never  dare  enter  the 
house  again.  Thus  do  heathen  superstitions  dry  up  the  fount- 
ains of  natural  affection. 

In  cases  where  infanticide  is  common,  males  predominate 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  difficult  for  parents  to  obtain  wives 
for  their  sons,  and  they  often  make  arrangements  with  a family 
which  has  an  infant  daughter  to  spare  lieT  life  and  betroth 
her  to  their  son.  In  these  cases,  the  girl  at  a very  early  age 
becomes  the  inmate  of  the  family  of  her  betrothed  husband. 
Parents  of  the  lower  and  middle  classes,  whose  daughters  live 
with  them  till  they  are  married,  feel  that  they  are  entitled  to 
some  remuneration  from  the  parents  of  the  husband  for  all 
their  expense  and  trouble  in  bringing  her  up.  For  this  rea- 
son, when  a girl  is  betrothed  with  the  expectation  of  her  re- 
maining in  her  own  family,  her  parents  expect  a considerable 
amount  of  money ; so  that  the  transaction  has  very  much  the 
appearance  of  a matter  of  buying  and  selling.  Many  men  are 
doomed  to  a life  of  celibacy  because  they  are  too  poor  to  buy 
and  support  a wife. 

-s-A  mild  form  of  slavery  is  found  in  China,  but  in  no  place 
do  slaves  form  more  than  an  insignificant  fraction  of  the  la- 
borers. The  absolute  right  of  husbands  to  their  wives,  and 
of  parents  to  their  children  and  their  control  over  them,  are 
such,  that  they  may  sell  them  if  they  choose  to  do  so.  I 
have  known  an  instance  of  an  opium-smoker,  who,  after  hav- 
ing sold  his  wife  to  provide  means  to  satisfy  the  cravings  of 
his-  insatiable  appetite,  sold  his  only  son  to  obtain  money  for 
travelling  expenses  in  coming  to  Ningpo  to  be  cured  of  this 
terrible  habit.  v 

The  funerals  of  grown  persons,  and  especially  of  parents, 
are  as  remarkable  for  burdensome  ceremonies,  extravagant 
manifestations  of  grief,  and  lavish  expense,  as  those  of  chil- 
dren are  for  their  coldness  and  neglect.  When  an  individual 
dies,  the  house  is  often  filled  with  weeping  and  wailing,  and 
importunate  cries  to  the  spirit  to  come  back  again.  Can- 


254 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


dies,  incense,  and  offerings  of  food  are  placed  before  the  corpse. 
A company  of  priests  is  engaged  to  chant  prayers  for  the  de- 
parted spirit.  An  abundance  of  clothing  is  deposited  with  the 
body  in  the  coffin.  Various  services  and  ceremonies  are  per- 
formed during  several  days  immediately  after  death,  and  on 
every  subsequent  seventh  day,  closing  with  the  seventh  seven. 
This  use  of  the  number  seven  presents  almost  the  only  marked 
analogy  between  Chinese  and  Jewish  or  Western  usages  with 
which  I am  acquainted. 

When  the  coffin  is  carried  out  for  burial,  men  and  some- 
times women  follow  in  the  procession,  clothed  in  coarse  white 
garments,  white  being  used  for  mourning.  The  men  have 
white  braided  into  the  end  of  their  queues,  which  they  con- 
tinue to  wear  as  a badge  of  mourning  for  several  months.  In 
most  places  which  I have  visited,  the  mourning  and  weeping 
in  funeral  processions  is  left  principally  to  the  women.  I saw, 
however,  in  the  city  of  Hwang-hien,  in  the  province  of  Shan- 
tung, a funeral  procession  composed  only  of  men,  who,  as  they 
walked  solemnly  through  the  street,  gave  at  each  tread  a deep 
sigh  or  groan,  producing  a strange  and  somewhat  impressive 
effect.  x 

Coffins  are  prepared  with  a great  deal  of  care.  They  are 
generally  purchased  at  the  undertakers,  where  they  are  con- 
stantly kept  on  hand,  but  are  often  made  at  the  house  under 
the  immediate  inspection  of  the  person  for  whom  the  coffin  is 
intended.  V ery  excellent  and  well-seasoned  timber  is  selected, 
the  planks  are  sawed  very  thick,  and  nailed  together  in  a kind 
of  cement  with  large  spikes,  and  the  whole  is  covered  with 
numerous  coatings  of  a very  hard  and  durable  varnish.  The 
coffin  is  so  heavy  that  it  requires  an  effort  for  a strong  man 
to  lift  one  end  of  it.  When  it  is  taken  out  with  the  body  for 
interment,  from  twelve  to  twenty  men  are  employed  to  carry 
it.  The  Chinese  are  quite  shocked  with  our  custom  of  bury- 
ing dear  friends  in  light  coffins  whose  boards  are  not  much 
more  than  an  inch  in  thickness.  v 

They  have  not  the  aversion  to  coffins  and  their  associations 


BURIAL  CUSTOMS. 


255 


that  we  have.  These  last  resting-places  of  the  body  are  often 
ostentatiously  exposed  near  the  entrance  of  the  house,  or  in 
some  other  place,  to  be  examined  and  remarked  upon  by  guests 
and  visitors.  Sometimes  a coffin  containing  a body  is  kept  in 
the  house  for  a considerable  length  of  time  while  arrangements 
are  being  made  for  a burying-place  and  other  preliminaries 
are  attended  to.  The  lids  being  nailed  down  in  cement,  a 
well-constructed  coffin  is  perfectly  air-tight.  In  travelling  in 
China,  and  being  entertained  by  natives,  my  wife  and  I have  oc- 
cupied sleeping  apartments  containing  several  coffins ; wheth- 
er empty  or  not,  we  did  not  inquire. 

( The  Chinese  generally  bury  near  the  surface,  and  heap  up 
a conical  tumulus  over  the  grave.  The  coffin  is  often  placed 
on  a cement  floor,  and  covered  over  with  an  arch  of  brick 
laid  in  cement.  They  are  sometimes  exhumed  scores  of  years 
after  burial  in  an  almost  perfect  state  of  preservation. 

I am  not  aware  that  the  Chinese  ever  procure  and  lay  out 
a spot  of  ground  for  a public  cemetery,  but  some  places  be- 
come large  burying-grounds  in  process  of  time.  Those  por- 
tions of  the  country  which  are  comparatively  unproductive, 
and  consequently  cheap,  especially  hill-sides  which  have  a 
general  reputation  for  being  lucky,  are  filled  with  the  graves 
of  the  poorer  classes.  In  the  vicinity  of  cities  some  of  these 
burying-grounds  are  of  great  extent.  I noticed  one  near  the 
city  Han-yiang  (or  Hankao,  as  the  foreign  settlement  is  call- 
ed), which  is  said  to  be  about  ten  miles  long,  and  on  an  aver- 
age one  mile  wide.  This  area  seemed  so  fully  and  closely 
occupied  that  a vacant  spot  could  hardly  be  found  in  it.  In 
this  vast  congregation  of  the  dead,  probably  not  far  from 
20,000,000  of  human  beings  have  found  their  last  resting-place. 
And  this  is  but  one  of  the  burial-places  in  connection  with 
one  of  the  cities  of  China.  What  a solemn  thought,  that  all 
these  myriads  have  gone  down  to  fill  idolatrous  graves,  with- 
out any  knowledge  of  the  God  who  made  them,  and  of  Jesus 
Christ  whom  He  has  sent ! ^ 

The  amount  of* expense  rendered  unavoidable  by  the  cus- 


256 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


toms  of  the  country  in  attending  to  the  ceremonies  of  wed- 
dings and  funerals,  and  providing  coffins  and  graves  for  the 
dead,  is  almost  intolerable.  As  a natural  result  of  these  often 
useless  expenditures,  very  many  families  are  burdened  with 
debt  from  one  generation  to  another.  In  order  to  furnish  for 
a few  days  an  ostentatious  and  empty  display  in  honor  of  the 
dead,  the  surviving  descendants  are  embarrassed  and  distress- 
ed for  a lifetime. 


CHINESE  DIVISIONS  OF  TIME. 


257 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

NATIONAL  FESTIVALS,  CUSTOMS,  AND  AMUSEMENTS. 

The  Chinese  Divisions  of  Time.— Number  and  Variety  of  Festivals  and 
Anniversaries. — Welcoming  of  Spring. — The  Customs  and  Festivities 
connected  with  the  New  Year. — The  “Feast  of  Lanterns.” — “Festi- 
val of  the  Tombs.” — The  Season  of  flying  Kites. — Idolatrous  Proces- 
sions.— Chinese  Theatres. — Their  Connection  with  Idolatry. — How  con- 
ducted.— Character  of  the  Plays  and  Actors. — Puppet  Shows. — Gam- 
bling.— Public  Fasts  enjoined  by  official  Proclamations. — Common 
Practice  of  using  obscene  Language. 

The  Chinese  attach  a great  deal  of  importance  to  the  di- 
vision of  time,  and  are  careful  to  make  these  divisions  in  ac- 
cordance with  fixed  principles  inherent  in  nature.  The  year 
is  composed  of  lunar  months,  which  begin  with  the  new  moon ; 
and  its  appearance  being  the  same  on  corresponding  days  of 
each  month,  the  number  of  the  day  suggests  the  phase  of  the 
moon,  and  vice  versa.  The  same  word  is  used  in  Chinese 
both  for  moon  and  month.  The  new  year  commences  with 
the  first  new  moon  after  the  sun  enters  Aquarius,  which  is 
some  time  between  the  21st  of  January  and  the  19th  of  Febru- 
ary.* This  period  seems  to  have  been  fixed  upon  because  it 
marks  the  time  of  the  first  indication  of  reviving  spring.  The 
four  seasons  of  the  year  correspond  to  ours.  The  months 
being  lunar,  twelve  are  not  sufficient  to  complete  the  year,  and 
an  intercalary  one  is  added,  when  necessary,  causing  the  en- 
suing year  to  commence  about  twenty  days  later  than  the  pre- 
ceding. This  added  month  is  placed  after  the  sixth,  and 
called  the  sixth  intercalary  month.  Months  contain  either 
twenty-nine  or  thirty  days,  and  are  designated  accordingly 


Williams’s  “Middle  Kingdom. 


253 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


small  or  large  months.  The  day  is  divided  into  twelve  hours, 
each  being  twice  the  length  of  ours. 

In  addition  to  the  four  seasons,  the  year  is  divided  into 
eight  parts,  called  Tsih , “joints”  or  divisions,  and  these  are 
again  subdivided  into  sixteen  more,  called  Kyi,  “ breaths,”  or 
sources  of  life.  These  twenty-four  divisions,  most  of  which 
are  more  or  less  imaginary,  are  associated  with  different 
changes  in  nature,  and  the  germination,  growth,  and  maturing 
of  grains  and  plants.  They  may  be  regarded  as  festivals,  and 
each  has  its  appropriate  ceremonies  and  observances. 

Besides  these,  which  might  be  called  natural  anniversaries, 
but  which,  in  the  arrangement  of  lunar  months,  do  not  fall  on 
the  same  day  of  the  month  in  successive  years,  there  are  nu- 
merous other  anniversaries,  commemorative  of  the  birthdays 
of  distinguished  individuals,  great  historical  events,  etc. 

A scholar  from  Nankin,  whom  I employed  several  years 
ago  to  write  out  a description  of  the  festivals  of  China,  gives 
an  account  of  the  character  and  observances  of  those  which 
are  most  important  and  are  generally  observed,  numbering,  in 
all,  forty.  They  do  not  occur  at  regular  intervals,  and  there 
is  no  periodical  return  of  a day  of  rest  and  recreation  corre- 
sponding at  all  to  our  Sabbath.  The  origin  and  ceremonies  of 
many  of  these  festivals  may  be  accounted  for  and  explained, 
while  others  perpetuate  ancient  usages,  of  which  no  one  can 
tell  where  or  when  they  originated,  or  what  they  are  intended 
to  commemorate. 

Those  who  are  curious  to  learn  more  respecting  the  nation- 
al and  social  customs  of  the  Chinese  will  find  much  interesting 
information  on  thdse  subjects  in  Doolittle’s  “ Social  Life  of 
the  Chinese  ” and  W illiams’s  “ Middle  Kingdom.”  I will  only 
refer  in  this  chapter  to  a few  of  the  most  prominent  festivals. 

The  ceremony  of  Welcoming  Spring  has  been  spoken  of  in 
connection  with  the  National  Worship  of  China.  It  takes 
place  on  the  day  called  in  the  calendar  Kai  chwen,  the  “ Be- 
ginning of  Spring,”  which  occurs  a short  time  before  or  after 
the  new  year. 


NEW  YEAR’S  CUSTOMS  AND.  CEREMONIES.  261 

The  festivities  of  the  new  year  exceed  all  others  in  their 
prominence  and  continuance,  and  in  the  universality  and  en- 
thusiasm with  which  they  are  observed.  These  ceremonies 
are  looked  forward  to  with  interest  during  the  whole  year, 
and  great  preparations  are  made  for  them.  They  are  familiar- 
ly designated  by  the  terms  Kwo-nien — “ Pass-year,”  or  Pass- 
ing from  one  year  to  another,”  “ Thank  the  year,”  “ Bid  adieu 
to  the  year,”  “Worship  the  year,”  etc.  They  relate  to  the 
old  and  to  the  new  year,  both  of  which  are  almost  personified 
and  made  objects  of  idolatrous  worship. 

As  the  day  approaches,  quantities  of  provisions  are  pur- 
chased for  the  anticipated  sacrifices  and  feastings  ; and  a few 
fowls  which  have  been  reared  about  the  doors  of  the  poorer 
families,  who  seldom  taste  of  animal  food  at  oflier  times,  are 
now  killed.  According  to  a' universal  and  authoritative  cus- 
tom, all  accounts  must  now  be  settled.  On  the  last  day  of  the 
year  the  streets  of  Chinese  towns  and  cities  present  a very 
busy  and  animated  appearance.  A great  deal  of  money 
changes  hands  in  a short  time.  Provisions,  clothing,  and 
presents  are  bought  in  large  quantities,  not  only  because  they 
are  needed  to  commence  the  new  year,  but  because  all  shops 
are  shut  for  several  days  of  the  first  month.  Some  families 
who  are  unable  to  satisfy  their  creditors  in  any  other  way, 
part  with  old  family  relics,  or  curious  and  valuable  ornaments ; 
and  these  coming  into  the  market  at  low  prices,  persons  who 
have  the  capital  and  wish  such  articles  are  on  the  lookout  for 
them. 

It  is  a mistake  to  suppose,  as  is  often  asserted,  that  all 
debts  are  paid  at  this  time,  for  a great  proportion  of  the  Chi- 
nese continue  in  debt  from  year  to  year ; but  an  arrangement 
satisfactory  to  the  creditor  must  be  made.  It  is  especially 
necessary  to  attend  to  shop-keepers’  debts,  as  articles  must  be 
bought  of  them  during  the  coming  year.  Debts  incurred  in 
borrowing  money  of  relatives  and  friends  for  funeral  or  wed- 
ding expenses,  or  in  time  of  sickness,  are  very  apt  to  go  over 
the  year,  and  are  often  never  paid.  This  is  the  harvest-time 


262 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


for  pawnbrokers,  who  are  very  numerous,  and  many  of  whom 
amass  great  wealth.  Sometimes  a debtor  tries  to  avoid  and 
defraud  his  creditor,  in  which  case  the  creditor  feels  author- 
ized, and  is  allowed  by  the  customs  of  the  country  to  adopt 
summary  measures — proceeding  to  the  house  of  the  delin- 
quent, seizing  any  thing  he  can  lay  his  hands  upon,  perhaps 
breaking  and  destroying  things  generally,  and  frightening  and 
intimidating  the  inmates,  especially  the  female  portion  of 
them.  Nothing  is  more  dreaded  than  such  a procedure  on 
account  of  the  disgrace  of  it  to  the  debtor,  and  the  supersti- 
tious fear  of  such  an  inauspicious  beginning  of  the  new  year. 
A man  is  sometimes  seen  seeking  a creditor  on  New  Year’s 
morning.  This  he  is  permitted  to  do  if  he  carries  a lantern 
with  him,  indicating  in  this  way  that  he  is  still  engaged 
in  last  night’s  business,  and  that  practically  it  is  yet  night 
with  him.  The  apparition  of  such  a visitor  when  the  person 
he  is  thus  seeking  Is  engaged  in  entertaining  and  feasting  his 
New  Year’s  callers,  is  calculated  to  excite  feelings  of  shame 
and  mortification  which  can  be  better  imagined  than  de- 
scribed. 

As  the  midnight  hour  approaches,  the  members  of  the 
family  come  together  for  a formal  service.  Sacrifices  are  of- 
fered to  the  Kitchen  God,  to  deceased  ancestors,  to  other  gods 
which  may  be  objects  of  worship  in  the  family,  and  also  to  the 
old  dying  year.  As  a part  of  this  last  ceremony,  the  head  of 
the  family,  representing  all  the  other  members  of  it,  kneels 
down  and  worships,  and  thanks  the  departing  year.  After 
this,  wine  is  sometimes  drunk,  called  “ dividing  the  year  wine.” 
Thus  the  old  year  passes  away,  and  a new  year  takes  its  place, 
with  thanksgivings  and  rejoicings,  a grand  illumination  of 
candles,  and  the  uninterrupted  sound  of  fire-crackers. 

Early  New  Year’s  morning  idolatrous  worship  is  performed 
similar  to  that  described  above,  but  having  a prospective  in- 
stead of  a retrospective  reference.  A continuance  of  the  favor 
and  blessing  of  the  Kitchen  God,  of  deceased  ancestors,  and 
heaven  and  earth,  is  invoked.  After  religious  homage  and  of- 


NEW  YEAR  CALLS. 


263 


ferings  rendered  to  these  objects  of  worship,  the  living  ances- 
tors take  their  seats,  and  the  children  worship  them — the  same 
words,  and  nearly  the  same  forms,  being  used  as  those  which 
are  connected  with  the  worship  of  gods.  The  members  of  the 
family  now  offer  to  each  other  their  congratulations.  The 
servants  come  and  pay  their  respects  to  their  employers,  and 
receive  the  expected  New  Year’s  gift. 

Many  of  the  people,  after  paying  their  respects  to  their 
household  gods,  visit  some  of  the  temples.  The  Cheng-hwcing- 
micio , described  in  Chapter  X.,  is  a favorite  place  of  resort  at 
this  time.  Early  in  the  forenoon  it  is  almost  filled. with  wor- 
shipers, nearly  all  of  whom  are  men.  As  they  can  find  a va- 
cant place  in  front  of  the  principal  image,  they  kneel  and 
strike  their  heads  against  the  floor,  and,  rising,  cast  their  in- 
cense-sticks in  a large  vase  in  front  of  the  idol,  from  which  a 
constant  volume  of  smoke  rises  and  fills  the  temple. 

After  worshiping  the  gods,  the  people  pay  their  respects 

and  congratulations  to  their  near 
relatives  and  friends.  As  you 
" pass  through  the  streets,  a strik- 

ing contrast  is  presented  to  what 
was  witnessed  the  day  before. 
Every  shop  is  closed.  All  is 
quiet  except  the  shouting  of 
boys  and  the  explosion  of  fire- 
crackers. There  are  many  per- 

llAPriNESS.  # . 

sons  seen  passing  to  and  fro  in 
the  streets,  but  every  one  seems  a gentleman  in  dress  and 
manners.  All  are  clothed  either  in  silks,  satins,  or  furs,  and 
wear  a cap  of  ceremony.  Those  who  have  not  fine  clothes  of 
their  own  hire  them  by  the  day  or  the  hour,  and  have  the 
privilege  of  appearing  as  gentlemen  at  least  once  a year.  The 
streets  present  a new  and  improved  apj^earance.  During  the 
night  the  large  paper  engravings  pasted  on  the  doors,  repre- 
senting the  “ Door  Gods,”  or  “ Keepers  of  the  Doors,”  have 
been  changed,  the  old  paper  being  replaced  by  a bright  new 


264 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


tinued  till  the  15th,  but  become  less  numerous  every  day. 
Shops  begin  to  be  ojiened  on  the  third  or  fourth  day,  and  by 
degrees  the  people  of  every  class  resume  their  usual  occupa- 
tions. 

During  the  festivities  of  the  New  Year  it  is  very  common 
to  see  a company  of  boys  bearing  aloft  a representation  of  a 
huge  dragon,  made  of  a frame-work  of  split  bamboo  covered 
with  cloth.  With  this  they  visit  house  after  house,  asking 
of  the  inmates  the  privilege  of  taking  the  dragon  inside  their 
dwelling  to  frighten  away  evil  spirits,  and  insure  good  luck 


one.  New  inscriptions  in  large  red  characters  are  also  seen  over 
the  doors,  presenting  some  sentence  of  joyous  or  propitious 
import.  Many  families  make  use  of  the  single  character  fuh , 
“happiness,”  presenting  the  great  end  and  object  after  which 
man  is  longing  and  striving  everywhere,  and  which,  alas,  in 
this  sinful  world  it  is  so  difficult  to  obtain. 

Guests,  in  passing  from  house  to  house,  are,  after  the  for- 
mal salutations,  always  treated  with  tea  and  refreshments,  and 
perhaps  urged  to  stay  and  take  lunch  or  dinner,  which  invita- 
tions are  generally  declined.  These  New  Year  calls  are  con- 


VARIOUS  FESTIVALS. 


265 


for  the  coming  year.  While  the  boys  enjoy  the  sport  great- 
ly, they  also  fill  their  pockets  with  cash  presented  to  them  by 
the  families  whom  they  visit. 

On  the  15tli  of  the  first  month  occurs  the  “Feast  of  Lan- 
terns.” For  several  days  previous,  a great  number  and  varie- 
ty of  lanterns  are  exposed  for  sale  in  the  shops.  They  are 
made  with  a light  frame  of  bamboo  covered  with  transparent 
paper,  and  represent  birds  and  animals,  and  other  objects  of 
interest.  Some  of  them  are  made  to  run  on  wheels.  Others 
are  so  contrived  that  the  motion  of  the  air  produced  by  the 
burning  of  the  candle  sets  wheels  and  machinery  at  work,  and 
makes  the  object  appear  like  a thing  of  life.  A great  deal  of 
ingenuity  is  manifested  in  these  toys  which  please  the  old  as 
well  as  the  young.  Large  quantities  of  them  are  sold.  Each 
family  contributes  to  the  general  illumination,  an  unusual 
number  of  people  is  seenttn  the  streets,  and  they  retire  to  their 
homes  at  a late  hour. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  Chinese  festivals  is  the 
Tsing-ming — “ Clear  and  Bright.”  It  occurs  in  the  spring, 
and  is  the  time  when  the  people  visit  the  graves, .on  which 
account  it  is  often  called  the  “ Festival  of  the  Tombs.”  At 
this  lovely  season,  all  nature  bursting  into  life,  and  the  air 
loaded  with  the  fragrance  of  spring  flowers  and  blossoms,  the 
hills  are  filled  with  visitors,  each  group  seeking  out  the  well- 
known  grave.  Offerings  of  food  and  paper-money  are  made 
to  the  departed  spirit : worship  is  performed ; the  place  is 
swept ; a few  clods  of  earth  are  added  perhaps  to  the  top  of 
the  mound  ; and  a stick  is  inserted  in  it,  with  a small  piece  of 
paper  attached,  to  show  to  the  passing  observer  that  this  spot 
has  not  been  forgotten  by  surviving  relatives.  These  visits  to 
the  hills  are  not  always  made  on  the  same  day,  but  about  this 
time,  sooner  or  later. 

The  ninth  day  of  the  ninth  month  is  a great  time  for  fly- 
ing kites.  Mr.  Doolittle,  in  the  “ Social  Life  of  the  Chinese,” 
states,  in  speaking  of  a hill  in  the  vicinity  of  Fuchow,  that 
“ Probably  thirty  or  forty  thousand  people  visit  that  hill  to 

M 


266 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


fly  their  kites,  especially  if  the  weather  is  fine  on  that  day.” 
He  thus  describes  the  kites : “ The  air  is  full  of  them.  Some 
are  in  the  shape  of  spectacles  ; others  represent  a kind  of  fish ; 
others  are  like  an  eel  or  some  similar-looking  animal,  being 
from  ten  to  thirty  feet  long,  and  of  proportionate  size ; others 
are  like  various  kinds  of  birds,  or  bugs,  or  butterflies,  or  quad- 
rupeds. Some  resemble  men  sailing  through  the  air.”  “ A 
foreign  resident  or  transient  visitor  passing  along  the  street 
about  this  period  often  sees  at  a distance  in  the  air  what 
seems  to  be  an  immense  bird,  and  he  is  filled  with  surprise 
and  joy  at  having  so  near  a view  of  the  unusual  phenome- 
non, until  he  is  reminded  by  its  nearly  stationary  position 
and  mechanical  movements  that  it  is  nothing  but  a paper 
kite.” 

Idolatrous  processions  are  conspicuous  among  the  national 
customs  of  China,  and  are  a principal  means  of  popular  amuse- 
ment and  recreation.  They  are  made  in  honor  of  different 
gods,  occur  frequently  during  the  year,  and  are  accompanied 
with  a great  display  of  pomp  and  finery,  and  an  immense  out- 
lay of  money.  An  image  of  some  god  or  gods  is  always 
borne  at  the  head  of  the  procession,  followed  by  crowds  of 
men  and  boys  bearing  aloft  any  object  which  will  strike  the 
gaze  of  the  beholder,  and  add  to  the  interest  and  novelty  of 
the  scene.  Families  or  mercantile  establishments  contribute 
some  article  which  serves  to  bring  them  prominently  before 
the  people,  and  gives  evidence  of  their  generosity  and  public 
spirit. 

Boats  or  other  objects,  curiously  and  fantastically  con- 
structed, are  borne  on  the  shoulders  of  men,  decked  off  with 
costly  trappings  and  ornaments,  or  filled  with  musicians. 
Here  and  there  may  sometimes  be  seen  an  exceedingly  natural 
representation  of  an  elephant,  or  a camel,  or  giraffe,  walking 
in  the  procession.  These  are  frames  of  light  split  bamboo, 
covered  with  paper,  which  is  painted  so  as  to  resemble  the  an- 
imal represented,  while  two  men,  with  the  upper  part  of  their 
bodies  concealed  in  the  hollow  body,  furnish,  one  the  fore- 


IDOLATROUS  PROCESSIONS. 


267 


BOAT  0 ABU  LED  IN  PROCESSION  ON  MEN’S  SHOULDERS. 

legs,  and  the  other  the  hind-legs,  having  been  trained  to  keep 
step  and  imitate  the  proper  gait  or  motion. 

In  and  about  Ningpo  variety  and  interest  are  added  to 
these  processions  by  a still  more  curious  exhibition.  On  a 
platform  borne  on  men’s  shoulders  is  seen  a beautiful  and 
finely-dressed  female  (it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  these 
are  not  of  a very  respectable  class),  and  another  one,  standing 
tiptoe  on  the  uplifted  hand  of  the  first,  is  elevated  high  in 
air,  a very  conspicuous  object,  and  much  admired  and  com- 
mented upon.  The  manner  in  which  these  figures  are  sup- 
ported seems  to  the  uninitiated  stranger  very  mysterious. 
The  mystery  is  explained  by  the  existence  of  strong  iron 
frames,  which  are  nicely  adjusted  so  as  to  give  support  to  the 
body,  and  are  concealed  under  the  clothing.  Beautifully-dress- 
ed children  riding  on  horses  led  by  grooms  follow  in  the  train. 


268 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


Flags,  banners,  and  streamers  are  interspersed,  smne  of  them 
representing  and  distinguishing  the  neighborhood  from  which 
the  persons  and  articles  in  a particular  part  of  the  procession 
have  come. 

A man  is  occasionally  seen  personating  a criminal,  wearing 
hand-cuffs  or  a chain,  or  a cangue  (a  wooden  frame  which  is 
sometimes  fastened  on  the  necks  of  criminals,  and  contains  an 
inscription  stating  the  offense  of  which  they  have  been  con- 


WEARING  THE  CANGUE  AS  A TOKEN  OF  GRATITUDE. 


victed).  These  men  are  recognized  at  a glance  to  be  persons 
who  have  made  a vow  in  times  of  distress  «fr  danger  to  the 
god  in  whose  honor  this  public  demonstration  is  given,  prom- 
ising, in  order  to  secure  his  favor  and  interposition,  to  walk  all 
day  with  this  dress,  and  in  this  assumed  character. 

Some  of  these  processions  are  from  a quarter  to  half  a mile 
long.  They  pass  from  street  to  street,  according  to  a pre- 
arranged plan,  and  the  inhabitants,  in  anticipation  of  their  ap- 


CHINESE  THEATRES. 


269 


proacli,  are  ready,  in  their  holiday  dresses,  to  welcome  and 
admire  them,  thronging  the  streets,  filling  up  all  the  vacant 
areas,  and  occupying  the  doors  and  second-story  windows. 

The  motives  which  prompt  to  providing  for  the  regular 
recurrence  of  these  displays  are  a desire  to  adhere  to  old  cus- 
toms, a fondness  for  excitement  and  amusement,  and  the  hope 
of  propitiating  and  pleasing  the  gods  and  deriving  benefits 
from  them. 

Theatres  are  very  common  in  China,  but  the  character  and 
associations  of  the  stage  are  very  different  from  those  of 
Western  lands.  The  principal  and  professed  object  of  thea- 
tres is  to  honor  or  propitiate  some  god  or  spirit,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  be  present  in  an  image,  or  tablet,  or  paper  engrav- 
ing, to  which  is  assigned  the  most  prominent  and  honored 
place.  In  front  of  the  object  of  worship  may  always  be  seen 
a table  spread  with  sacrifices  or  offerings,  in  order  to  satisfy 
the  palate,  as  well  as  the  eyes  and  ears  of  the  unseen  spirit. 

There  are  no  large  permanent  buildings  erected  specially 
for  theatrical  exhibitions.  Plays  are  performed  in  temples,  in 
private  dwellings,  in  the  street,  and  by  the  roadside.  Tem- 
ples of  every  kind  have  each  a stage  or  platform  in  front 
of  the  idols,  designed  particularly  for  theatrical  purposes. 
Wealthy  families  have  a temporary  stage  erected  in  the  large 
interior  court.  Sometimes  a family,  or  several  of  them  to- 
gether, have  a stage  erected  on  a vacant  plot  of  ground  near 
their  house.  In  business  streets  theatricals  are  frequently  ex- 
hibited in  front  of  a shop  for  the  benefit  of  its  trade,  in  which 
case  a stage  is  erected  across  the  street,  the  floors  being  suf- 
ficiently high  to  allow  the  people  to  pass  under  it. 

The  expense  of  these  exhibitions  is  borne  by  the  temple, 
shop,  family,  or  families  which  contract  for  them.  Friends 
receive  special  invitations,  and  have  seats  assigned  to  them, 
and  a feast  provided  for  them.  Any  one  may  be  present 
who  is  willing  to  stand  in  the  crowd  as  a common  spectator, 
and  the  greater  the  number  of  these  outside  observers,  the 
better  pleased  are  those  who  give  the  entertainment. 


270 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


The  times  or  occasions  of  these  performances  are  very  nu- 
merous. On  the  birthday  of  a god,  a theatre  is  given  to  that 
god  in  the  temple  belonging  to  it  by  the  neighborhood  or  vil- 
lage connected  with  the  temple.  On  many  of  the  festivals 
plays  are  performed  in  the  ancestral  temples.  The  birthday 
of  a parent,  either  living  or  deceased,  may  also  be  celebrated 
by  these  exhibitions.  Theatres  are  often  given  in  conse- 
quence of  vows.  In  times  of  conflagrations  persons  frequently 
prostrate  themselves  on  the  ground  and  promise  one  in  honor 
of  the  Fire  God  in  case  their  dwelling  is  protected.  This 
kind  is  called  Sie  ho  hi — “ Thank-fire  Theatre.”  In  times  of 
peace  and  security,  a person  or  neighborhood,  in  order  to 
avert  future  calamities,  often  provides  what  is  called  Pau 
ngan  hi — “ Secure-tranquillity  Theatre.”  The  noisy  ceremo- 
nies of  feeding  hungry  ghosts,  described  in  a former  chapter, 
are  generally  terminated  by  a play  called  En  shin  hi — “ Tran- 
quilize-gods  Theatre,”  which  is  intended  as  a kind  of  an  apol- 
ogy to  the  local  deities  for  making  so  much  disturbance  in 
the  places  which  they  preside  over.  The  birthday  of  the 
reigning  Emperor  is  celebrated  by  theatricals  of  several  days’ 
duration  in  the  yamuns,  or  public  offices.  Other  occasions 
for  theatres  might  be  mentioned,  but  the  above  are  sufficient 
to  give  a general  idea  of  the  whole. 

The  plays  performed  present  much  which  strikes  a foreign- 
er as  whimsical  and  ridiculous.  Still,  making  allowance  for 
the  difference  of  national  tastes  and  literary  attainments,  they 
differ  less  from  corresponding  performances  in  the  West  than 
might  be  expected.  Some  are  historical,  presenting  events 
and  characters  of  former  dynasties,  and  some  are  purely  fic- 
titious. Some  are  the  productions  of  the  past,  and  some  of 
the  present  age.  They  are  regarded  by  the  people  as  aids  to 
virtuous  living,  as  the  characters  represented  generally  meet 
with  their  just  deserts  of  rewards  or  punishments.  The  vari- 
ous kinds  of  costume  employed  differ  widely  from  that  used  at 
the  present  day,  and  are  oftentimes  exceedingly  grotesque  and 
ludicrous.  The  performers  recite  their  parts  in  a high,  drawl- 


PLAY  ACTORS. 


271 


ing,  fal^ptto  tone,  which,  though  unnatural,  and  never  used  in 
common  conversation,  is  required  by  Chinese  taste  in  theatres. 
These  exhibitions  are  characterized  by  an  undue  amount  of 
action : the  performers  are  continually  advancing  and  retiring, 
bowing  and  gesturing,  twisting  and  turning.  They  often  en- 
gage in  loud  altercations,  violent  gesticulations,  and  mock  con- 
flicts, which,  though  we  might  suppose  they  would  only  excite 
laughter,  seem  to  inspire  awe  in  the  minds  of  Chinese  specta- 
tors. The  termination,  not  only  of  each  act  or  scene,  but,  in 
some  cases,  of  each  sentence  or  paragraph,  is  marked  by  a 
flourish  of  gongs  and  other  musical  (or  rather,  to  our  ears,  un- 
musical) instruments.  The  plays  being  composed  and  recited, 
for  the  most  part,  in  the  terse  written  language  of  China  or  in 
the  Mandarin  dialect,,  are  very  imperfectly  understood,  even  by 
literary  men.  The  meaning  is  derived,  not  so  much  from  what 
is  heard  as  from  what  is  seen.  The  auditors  are  also  assisted 
by  occasional  sentences  spoken  in  the  colloquial  dialect,  and  by 
additional  explanations  from  theatre-going  people  in  the  audi- 
ence. It  is  but  just  to  say,  with  reference  to  the  morals  of 
Chinese  theatres,  that  their  most  objectionable  feature  is  their 
connection  with  idolatry.  Vulgar  and  immoral  plays,  though 
not  unknown,  are  comparatively  rare,  and,  being  proscribed  by 
law,  are  generally  found  in  obscure  villages  in  the  country. 
Theatres,  like  almost  every  thing  else  in  China,  have  evident- 
ly deteriorated,  and  the  natives  often  remark  of  them,  as  of 
other  things,  “ They  are  not  what  they  were  of  old.” 

Play-actors,  being  employed  to  amuse  and  serve  the  peo- 
ple, are  regarded  as  an  inferior  class.  In  Ningpo  the  occupa- 
tion falls  exclusively  to  a proscribed  class,  who  are  the  descend- 
ants of  a family  which  formerly  fell  under  the  displeasure  of 
the  Emperor.  Females  as  a general  thing  do  not  appear  upon 
the  stage,  but  men  act  the  parts  of  female  characters  with  a 
remarkably  accurate  imitation  of  their  voice  and  general  ap- 
pearance. Children  designed  to  follow  this  mode  of  life  from 
an  early  age  are  carefully  taught  to  observe  all  the  niceties  of 
voice  and  gesture  regarded  as  so  essential  in  their  profession, 


272 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


and  are  required  to  commit  to  memory  an  immensoamount 
of  matter  with  the  greatest  accuracy.  Proficients  in  the  art 
of  play-acting  become  teachers  and  heads  of  companies.  Chil- 
dren are  indentured  to  these  teach- 
ers with  the  express  stipulation  that, 
if  the  child  is  beaten  to  death,  his  life 
shall  not  be  required  at  the  teacher’s 
hands.  This  provision  is  made,  be- 
cause it  is  supposed  that  excellency 
can  not  be  attained  in  this  branch  of 
learning  without  constant  and  severe 
castigation.  Poor  children  doomed 
to  this  life  of  servitude  get  very  little 
sympathy,  as  their  sufferings  are  re- 
garded as  a necessity  of  their  condi- 
tion, and  they  are  expected  to  get  used 
to  them.  They  have  also  the  satis- 
faction of  knowing  that  they  are  only 
treated  as  their  master  was  before  them.  A theatrical  com- 
pany generally  sells  its  services  for  a year  to  some  wealthy  in- 
dividual, who  furnishes  them  with  an  outfit  and  employs  a su- 
perintendent, whose  business  it  is  to  keep  them  occupied,  and 
to  collect  pay  for  their  performances.  These  companies  con- 
sist of  from  ten  to  sixty  persons,  and  they  may  be  engaged 
for  from  three  to  twenty  dollars  a play.  Several  plays  may 
be  performed  by  the  same  company  in  a day,  and  they  are  oft- 
en continued  for  several  days  in  succession  in  the  same  place. 
Sometimes  a wealthy  individual  employs  a theatrical  company 
for  a definite  length  of  time  for  the  special  amusement  of  him- 
self, his  family  and  friends,  and  his  gods.  These  actors  being 
despised  by  their  countrymen,  have  little  respect  for  them- 
selves, and  find  their  place  below  mediocrity  in  the  scale  of 
morals. 

While  it  may  well  be  a matter  of  surprise  and  rejoicing  that 
these  theatres  are  not  worse,  in  a moral  point  of  view,  than 
they  are,  we  can  not  but  notice  the  masterly  art  of  Satan  in 


BOY  T>RESBET>  LIKE  A FEMALE  IN 
ACTING  A THEATRICAL  PLAY. 


PUPPET-SHOWS  OR  “ PUNCH  AND  JUDY. 


273 


infusing  into  this,  and  indeed  into  almost  every  other  means 
of  popular  recreation  and  amusement,  the  subtile  poison  of 
idolatry. 

So  universal  and  frequent  are  these  theatrical  exhibitions, 
and  so  well  suited  to  national  tastes,  that  the  people  have  lit- 
tle time  or  disposition  to  meet  often  for  other  entertainments. 
Gatherings  for  the  purpose  of  listening  to  public  addresses  and 
harangues  are  almost  unknown. 

The  puppet-shows  of  China  are,  on  account  of  the  very 
clever  way  in  which  they  are  pei’formed,  and  their  popularity 
among  the  people,  worthy  of  special  mention  in  this  connec- 
tion. Generally  two  men  go  together,  one  to  exhibit  the 
show,  and  the  other  as  an  assistant,  to  beat  the  gong,  collect 
the  contributions,  etc.  Sometimes  one  man  goes  alone,  and 
carries  his  whole  stock  in  trade  on  his  back.  He  passes  along 
the  street  beating  his  gong,  to  give  notice  of  his  readiness  to 
amuse  any  who  may  wish  to  employ  him,  and  is  invited  to 
play  before  a house,  or  chooses  a convenient  place  where  he 
can  attract  a crowd  from  the  street.  He  stands  on  a chair, 
upon  which  rests  also  the  stick  or  post  which  supports  the 
box  containing  his  show  or  mimic  theatre.  The  upper  part  of 
his  body  is  thrust  inside  the  box,  and  the  curtains  descending 
from  it  conceal  most  of  his  person.  The  front  of  the  box  is 
open  and  contains  a little  stage,  on  which  the  puppets  are  pa- 
raded. The  characters  represented  are  generally  a man  and 
his  wife  engaged  in  a domestic  quarrel.  They  scold  and  ges- 
ticulate and  threaten,  and,  when  these  resources  are  exhausted, 
proceed  to  the  use  of  fists  and  broom-sticks.  The  actor  behind 
the  screen,  by  means  of  wires  and  strings,  manages  the  mo- 
tions of  the  puppets  with  great  ingenuity,  and  imitates  the 
voices  and  language  of  the  two  sexes  most  perfectly.  The 
husband,  after  a great  assumption  of  dignity  and  authority, 
is  generally  driven  off  the  stage  ignominiously.  The  appre- 
ciation of  the  audience  is  often  attested  by  loud  shouts  of  ap- 
plause. Having  witnessed  this  show  both  in  China  and  En- 
gland, I was  struck  with  the  fact  that  it  is  in  these  two  coun- 

M 2 


274 


CHINA.  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


tries,  almost  identical,  and  that  the  Chinese  seem  rather  to  ex- 
cel in  performing  it. 

Gambling  is  very  common  in  China,  and  is  practiced  in  a 
variety  of  ways.  Its  immorality  and  evil  effects  are  acknowl- 
edged, and  there  are  laws  prohibiting  it ; but  they  are  a dead 
letter. 

A very  interesting  custom  prevails  of  observing  public  fasts 
on  appropriate  occasions.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  the  chief 
officer  of  a city  in  time  of  drought,  or  to  avert  some  dreaded 
public  calamity,  to  forbid  for  several  days  the  slaughter  of 
animals  and  the  sale  of  animal  food  in  the  market,  in  order  to 
move  the  gods  to  pity,  and  to  secure  their  kind  offices  in  af- 
fording the  desired  relief. 

In  speaking  of  the  national  practices  and  peculiarities  of 
the  Chinese,  I can  hardly  avoid  referring  to  the  very  common 
habit  among  the  middle  and  lower  classes  of  using  obscene 
language.  This  practice  seems  to  take  the  place  of  profanity 
in  Western  countries,  and  is  followed  by  the  same  class  of  per- 
sons to  about  the  same  extent,  and  apparently  from  about 
the  same  motives.  These  obscene  expressions  seem  designed 
primarily  for  the  purpose  of  reviling  and  abusing  one  who  is 
the  object  of  hatred  and  anger,  but  are  often  used  careless- 
ly, and  almost  unconsciously,  without  any  regard  to  their 
original  meaning. 

Many  other  national  traits  and  peculiarities  might  be  men- 
tioned, but  the  above  are  those  which  have  appeared  to  me 
most  prominent  and  characteristic  of  the  race. 


THE  CHINAMAN  JUDGED  UNFAIRLY. 


275 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

GENERAL  ESTIMATE  OF  THE  CHINESE  CHARACTER  AND 
CIVILIZATION. 

Opinions  generally  entertained  of  the  Chinese. — The  Impressions  we  have 
made  upon  them. — Difficulties  in  the  Way  of  obtaining  reliable  Infor- 
mation in  the  foreign  Communities  at  the  open  Ports. — National  pecul- 
iarities of  Chinese  Temperament  and  Character. — Evidences  of  Intel- 
lectuality in  the  Chinese. — The  Manner  in  which  they  are  regarded  by 
other  Eastern  Nations. — They  have  taken  the  Lead  in  many  of  the 
practical  Arts. — Many  of  their  Peculiarities  due  to  Education  rather 
than  to  Differences  of  Race. — Morality  of  the  Chinese. — Opinions 
which  we  have  mutually  entertained  of  each  other  in  this  Respect,  and 
the  Reasons  for  them. — A Look  at  ourselves  through  Chinese  Glasses. — 
Facts  illustrating  the  better  Side  of  Chinese  Character. — The  injuri- 
ous Effects  apprehended  by  some  from  speaking  well  of  a heathen 
People. 

. * 

I am  aware  that,  in  many  of  the  opinions  which  I shall  ad- 
vance in  this  chapter,  I shall  be  obliged  to  go  in  opposition  to 
generally  received  conclusions.  “ The  Chinaman  ” has  almost 
become  a synonym  for  stupidity,  and  his  habits  and  peculiari- 
ties afford  abundant  occasion  for  pleasantry-  and  ridicule. 
This  impression  has  become  so  fixed  and  so  general,  that  cor- 
respondents and  editors  of  newspapers  who  wish  to  make 
their  articles  on  China  and  the  Chinese  readable  and  interest- 
ing, gladly  seize  upon  and  exaggerate  any  thing  which  can  be 
made  to  appear  grotesque  and  ridiculous.  In  speaking  of  this 
people,  their  pig-tails,  shaven  pates,  thick-soled  shoes,  assump- 
tion of  dignity  and  superiority,  and  great  ignorance  of  many 
subjects  with  which  we  are  familiar,  make  up  the  unfailing  ma- 
terial upon  which  newspaper  writers  generally  draw.  Some 
of  the  religious  papers  even  follow  in  the  same  strain.  A com- 
paratively moderate  article  in  one  of  them  a few  weeks  since 


276 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


characterizes  the  Chinese  as  the  “largest,  oddest,  and  most 
absurd  of  the  social  organizations  now  existing  on  the  earth.” 

It  would  be  but  a poor  answer  to  these  views  to  say  that 
they  correspond  remarkably  with  those  which  the  Chinese  en- 
tertain of  us.  They  also  enjoy  a great  deal  of  pleasantry  at 
our  expense,  finding  it  almost  impossible,  with  their  associa- 
tions and  habits  of  thought,  to  regard  otherwise  than  as  ludi- 
crous our  short-cropped  hair,  tight  fitting,  ungraceful  and  un- 
comfortable-looking clothes,  gentlemen’s  thin-soled  leather 
boots,  tall  stiff  hats,  gloves  in  summer-time,  the  “ wasp-like  ” ap- 
pearance of  Western  ladies,  with  their  small  waists  and  large 
hoops,  our  ungraceful  manners,  our  remarkable  ignorance  of 
the  general  rules  of  propriety,  and  the  strange  custom  of  a 
man  and  his  wife  walking  together  in  public  arm  in  arm ! 
These  views  we  can  afford  to  laugh  at  as  relating  to  compara- 
tively trivial  matters,  but  they  think  they  have  the  evidence 
that  we  are  also  inferior  to  them  in  intellectuality,  in  refine- 
ment, in  civilization,  and  especially  in  morals. 

It  is  evident  that  one  party  or  the  other  has  made  a seri- 
ous mistake,  and  it  would  be  but  a natural  and  reasonable  pre- 
sumption that  both  may  have  erred  in  being  influenced  too 
much  by  the  common  tendency  of  our  nature  to  “ think  of 
ourselves  more  highly  than  we  ought  to  think.” 

We  should  look  at  this  matter  neither  from  a Chinese  nor 
Western  stand-point,  and  take  into  view  not  simply  facts 
which  are  comparatively  unimportant  and  exceptional,  but 
those  which  are  fundamental,  and  of  wide-spread  influence, 
and  should  construe  these  facts  justly  and  generously. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  here  in  advance  some  reasons  why 
general  views  relating  to  the  Chinese  character  and  civiliza- 
tion, formed  in  foreign  communities  in  China  by  those  who 
are  unacquainted  with  the  Chinese  language,  should  be  re- 
ceived with  a great  deal  of  hesitation. 

In  the  open  ports,  where  a large  foreign  commerce  has 
sprung  up,  an  immense  number  of  Chinese  congregate  from 
the  interior.  Many  or  most  of  them  are  adventurers,  separa- 


SOURCES  OF  MISCONCEPTION. 


277 


ted  from  the  restraining  influences  of  their  families  and  of 
home  society,  who  come  to  these  places  to  engage  in  the  gen- 
eral scramble  for  wealth.  As  it  is  but  too  common  for  for- 
eigners, in  their  treatment  of  native  servants  and  employes, 
to  be  haughty,  harsh,  and  overbearing,  Chinamen  of  independ- 
ence and  self-respect  generally  prefer  .to  be  employed  by  their 
own  people,  and  are  consequently  not  numerous  in  the  open 
ports.  Moreover,  foreign  ideas  and  customs  prevail  to  a 
great  extent  in  these  foreign  communities,  and  the  natives, 
whatever  they  might  have  been  originally,  gradually  become 
more  or  less  denationalized,  and  present  a modified  type  of 
their  race.  Foreigners  and  natives  speak  almost  exclusively 
the  meagre  and  contemptible  “ Pigeon-English  ” described  in 
Chapter  XIV.,  which  is  incapable  of  expressing  dignified 
thought,  and  the  very  use  of  which  gives  an  unpolished  and 
ludicrous  air  to  both  parties.  The  Chinese  being  every  day 
brought  into  contact  with  drunken  sailors,  swearing  sea-cap- 
tains, and  unscrupulous  traders  from  the  West,  new  lessons 
are  constantly  learned  from  them  in  the  school  of  duplicity 
and  immorality.  They  conclude  that,  as  the  foreigner  has 
come  to  their  country  to  acquire  wealth  in  dealing  with  them, 
it  is  but  fair  that  they  make  as  much  money  as  they  can  out 
of  the  foreigner.  Thus  the  associations  and  influences  of  the 
foreign  community  tend  to  deterioration  and  demoralization. 
The  Chinese  of  this  class  are  no  fitting  type  of  their  race,  and 
* foreigners  who  have  only  associated  with  them , and  that  solely 
through  the  medium  of  the  “ Pigeon-English,”  are  very  im- 
perfectly qualified  to  give  an  opinion  from  personal  experi- 
ence and  observation  of  the  character,  morals,  and  ideas  of  the 
people  generally.  I have  dwelt  thus  at  length  on  this  point, 
because  many  of  the  impressions  obtained  at  home  of  the 
Chinese  are  derived  from  returned  merchants  and  ship-cap- 
tains, and  transient  travellers  whose  sphere  of  observation  has 
been  very  limited,  and  whose  information  has  been  mostly  ob- 
tained, either  immediately  or  second-hand,  in  the  imperfect 
manner  just  described. 


278 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


The  Chinese  as  a race  are,  as  compared  with  European  na- 
tions, of  a phlegmatic  and  impassive  temperament,  and  physi- 
cally less  active  and  energetic.  Children  are  not  fond  of 
athletic  and  vigorous  sports,  but  prefer  marbles,  kite-flying, 
and  some  quiet  games  of  ball,  spinning  tops,  etc.  Men  take 
an  easy  stroll  for  recreation,  but  never  a rapid  walk  for  exer- 
cise, and  are  seldom  in  a hurry  or  excited.  They  are  also 
characteristically  timid  and  docile.  The  oft-made  assertion  is 
probably  true  that  an  army  of  ten  or  twenty  thousand  Euro- 
peans could  march  without  serious  opposition  from  one  end 
of  the  empire  to  the  other.  This  remarkable  disparity  is, 
however,  due  principally  to  our  knowledge  of  modern  military 
science,  and  our  possession  of  better  warlike  implements.  Chi- 
nese well  drilled,  with  confidence  in  their  leaders  and  in  each 
other,  and  equipped  with  modern  fire-arms,  would  form  an 
army  which  it  would  not  be  prudent  to  oppose  with  a force 
very  much  inferior  in  numbers  ; though  I have  no  doubt  that, 
with  the  same  training  and  advantages,  they  would  still  be 
found  inferior  to  Europeans  as  soldiers. 

But  while  the  Chinese  are  deficient  in  active  courage  and 
daring,  they  are  not  in  passive  resistance.  They  are  compar- 
atively apathetic  as  regards  pain  and  death,  and  have  great 
powers  of  physical  endurance,  as  well  as  great  persistency  and 
obstinacy.  On  an  average,  a Chinese  tailor  will  work  on  his 
bench,  or  a literary  man  over  books  or  with  his  pen,  more 
hours  a day  than  persons  of  our  race  can. 

Physical  development  and  strength  and  longevity  vary  in 
different  parts  of  the  empire.  In  and  about  Canton,  from 
which  we  have  derived  most  of  our  impressions  of  China,  as 
well  as  in  most  parts  of  the  South,  the  people  are  small  in  stat- 
ure ; but  in  the  province  of  Shantung,  in  the  North,  men  va- 
rying in  height  from  five  feet  eight  inches  to  six  feet  are  very 
common,  while  some  of  them  are  considerably  taller,  indeed, 
almost  giants  in  stature.  In  this  part  of  China  I have  known 
laborers  over  seventy  years  of  age,  working  daily  at  their  trades, 
and  it  is  not  unusual  to  hear  of  persons  who  have  reach- 


INTELLECTUAL  CAPABILITIES  OF  THE  CHINESE.  279 

ed  the  age  of  ninety  or  more.  Other  local  peculiarities,  phys- 
ical and  mental,  need  not  be  specially  dwelt  upon. 

The  intellectuality  of  the  Chinese  is  made  evident,  by  so 
many  obvious  and  weighty  facts,  that  it  seems  strange  that 
persons  of  ordinary  intelligence  and  information  should  ever 
have  questioned  it.  On  this  point  it  is  better  to  state  facts 
than  individual  opinions.  We  have  before  us  a system  of  gov- 
ernment and  code  of  laws  which  will  bear  favorable  compari- 
son with  those  of  European  nations,  and  have  elicited  a gen- 
erous tribute  of  admiration  and  praise  from  our  most  compe- 
tent and  reliable  writers.  The  practical  wisdom  and  fore- 
sight of  those  who  constructed  this  system,  are  evinced  by  the 
fact  that  it  has  stood  the  test  of  time ; enduring  longer  than 
any  other  which  man  has  devised  during  the  world’s  history; 
that  it  has  bound  together  under  one  common  rule  a popula- 
tion to  which  the  world  affords  no  parallel,  and  given  a degree 
of  prosperity  and  of  wealth  which  may  well  challenge  our 
wonder.  Notwithstanding  the  rebellions  and  political  agita- 
tions which  have  marked  the  history  of  this  people,  such  has 
been  their  character,  and  the  vital  and  recuperative  energy  of 
the  ideas  into  which  they  have  been  educated,  that  these  dis- 
asters have  been  but  temporary  impediments  in  the  continu- 
ous growth  and  development  of  the  empire.  It  is  intelligent 
thought  which  has  given  China  such  a prominence  in  the 
East,  and  also  in  the  eyes  of  Christendom.  She  may  well 
point  with  pride  to  her  authentic  history,  reaching  back 
through  more  than  thirty  centuries ; to  her  extensive  litera- 
ture, containing  many  works  of  sterling  and  permanent  value ; 
to  her  thoroughly  elaborated  language,  possessed  of  a remark- 
able power  of  expression ; to  her  list  of  scholars,  and  her  pro- 
ficiency in  belles-lettres.  If  these  do  not  constitute  evidences 
of  intellectuality,  it  would  be  difficult  to  say  where  such  evi- 
dence is  to  be  found,  or  on  what  basis  we  ourselves  will  rest 
our  claim  to  intellectual  superiority. 

China  has  been  so  arrogant  and  extravagant  in  her  assump- 
tion of  pre-eminence,  that  we  have  perhaps  for  this  very  rea- 


280 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


son  been  indisposed  to  accord  to  her  the  position  to  which  she 
is  fairly  entitled.  It  should  be  remembered  that  ignorant,  un- 
til recently,  of  Western  nations,  as  they  have  been  of  her,  she 
has  compared  herself  simply  with  the  nations  around  her ; and 
a partial  reason  or  excuse  for  her  overweening  self-conceit 
may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  she  has  only  regarded  herself 
as  the  nations  with  which  she  is  acquainted  have  regarded 
her.  She  has  been  for  ages  the  great  centre  of  light  and  civ- 
ilization in  Eastern  Asia.  She  has  given  a literature  and  re- 
ligion to  the  30  or  40,000,000  of  Japan,  and  also  to  the  inhab- 
itants of  Corea  and  Manchuria,  and  is  looked  up  to  by  these 
•and  other  smaller  nations  as  their  acknowledged  teacher. 
While  many  in  our  country  regard  the  Japanese  as  superior 
to  the  Chinese,  they  do  not  entertain  this  view  of  themselves. 
The  Japanese  have  produced  no  great  teachers  or  sages  which 
they  would  presume  to  compare  with  those  of  China ; and  it 
is  the  clearest  evidence  of  their  acknowledgment  of  the  liter- 
ary superiority  of  the  Chinese  that  they  use  the  Chinese  class- 
ics as  text-books  in  their  schools,  much  as  we  do  those  of 
Greece  and  Rome.  Japanese  books  of  high  literary  preten- 
sions are  also  written  in  the  Chinese  language  and  character, 
if  the  author  is  able  to  use  them,  rather  than  in  the  Japanese. 
The  Japanese  excel  the  Chinese  in  some  of  the  mechanic  arts, 
but  certainly  not  in  intellectuality  or  morality.  Perhaps  the 
principal  difference  between  the  two  races  is  this:  that  the 
Japanese,  having  been  accustomed  for  ages  to  learn  from  the 
Chinese  and  the  Dutch,  naturally  take  the  position  of  pupils, 
and  are,  for  this  reason,  outstripping  the  Chinese  in  learning 
from  Western  nations  a knowledge  of  the  modern  arts  and 
sciences ; while  the  Chinese  have  been  too  proud  to  learn,  have 
regarded  the  suggestion  that  there  is  any  thing  outside  the 
“ Middle  Kingdom  ” worth  learning  as  a reflection  or  asper- 
sion on  the  wisdom  of  their  ancestors  and  the  sages  of  the 
past,  and  have  preferred  to  remain  in  ignorancc.rather  than 
be  indebted  to  others  for  information. 

But  it  may  be  asked,  “ What  have  the  Chinese  ever  done  ? 


PECULIARITIES  OF  CHINESE  CULTURE. 


281 


What  do  they  know?  Have  they  ever  made  any  contribu- 
tions to  science?  Are  they  not  utterly  ignorant  of  all  the 
modern  arts  and  sciences  ?”  It  is  true  that  the  Chinese  know 
hardly  any  thing  of  the  modern  arts  and  sciences,  and  that 
there  is  no  word  in  their  language  to  designate  some  of  them ; 
but  how  much  did  our  ancestors  know  two  hundred  years 
ago  of  chemistry,  geology,  philosophy,  anatomy,  and  other  kin- 
dred sciences  ? What  did  we  know  fifty  years  ago  of  the 
steam-boat,  the  rail-road,  and  the  telegraph  ? And  is  our  com- 
parative want  of  knowledge  a few  years  ago  and  that  of  our 
ancestors  to  be  taken  as  evidence  of  inferiority  of  race  and  in- 
tellect? Perhaps  this  test  which  some  are  so  ready  to  apply 
will,  if  we  go  back  a few  hundred  years,  establish  the  claims 
of  the  Chinese  as  the  superior  race.  Printing,  which  is  sec- 
ond in  importance  to  none  of  the  arts  of  civilization,  originated 
with  the  Chinese,  and  was  made  use  of  by  them  hundreds  of 
years  before  any  thing  was  known  of  it  in  the  West.  They 
have  taken  the  lead  also  in  the  use  of  the  magnetic  needle,  the 
manufacture  and  use  of  gunpowder  and  of  silk  fabrics,  and 
china-ware  and  porcelain. 

Intellectual  power  manifests  itself  in  a variety  of  ways,  and 
glaring  defects  are  often  found  associated  in  the  same  indi- 
vidual with  remarkable  powers  and  capabilities,  as  particular 
faculties,  both  of  mind  and  body,  are  often  cultivated  and  de- 
veloped at  the  expense  of  others.  Chinese  education  has  very 
little  regard  to  the  improvement  of  the  reasoning  povrers,  and 
Chinese  scholars  are  deficient  in  logical  acumen,  and  very  in- 
ferior to  the  Hindoos  in  this  respect ; but,  in  developing  and 
storing  the  memory,  they  are  without  a rival.  Again,  their 
system  of  training  effectually  discourages  and  precludes  free- 
dom and  originality  of  thought,  while  it  has  the  compensating 
advantages  of  creating  a love  of  method  and  order,  habitual 
subjection  to  authority,  and  a remarkable  uniformity  in  char- 
acter and  ideas.  Perhaps  the  results  which  they  have  real- 
ized in  fusing  such  a vast  mass  of  beings  into  one  homogene- 
ous body  could  have  been  reached  in  no  other  way.  I believe 


282 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


that  the  Chinese  are  not  naturally  deficient  in  ingenuity  and 
originality,  and  that,  when  these  qualities  are  encouraged,  this 
race  will  show  a fertility  of  brain  the  existence  of  which  has 
hardly  been  suspected. 

The  Chinese  have  labored  under  another  serious  disadvan- 
tage, that  of  almost  entire  isolation  from  other  races,  and  con- 
sequent ignorance  of  them  and  their  ideas.  We  have  been 
possessed  of  all  the  stores  of  knowledge  of  all  the  different 
nations  of  Europe  and  Western  Asia  for  centuries;  and  it  is 
impossible  to  imagine  what  our  condition  would  be  to-day, 
were  it  not  for  the  advantages  we  have  derived  from  the 
stimulus  and  teachings  obtained  from  other  countries,  and 
more  especially  from  Christianity. 

There  have  been  but  few  opportunities  of  comparing  the 
intellectual  capabilities  of  the  Chinese  with  our  own.  Those 
who  have  visited  our  shores  are  not,  with  a few  exceptions, 
fitting  representatives  even  of  the  middle  laboring  classes  in 
China.  Only  a very  small  number  of  the  Mongolian  race 
have  been  educated  in  our  institutions  of  learning,  but  they 
have  uniformly  acquitted  themselves  not  only  creditably,  but 
with  honor.  A few  years  since,  a Chinaman  in  Yale  College 
bore  off  the  first  prize  in  his  class  for  English  composition, 
and  I have  been  told  by  several  of  his  classmates  that  this 
award  was  not  a matter  of  favoritism,  but  of  stern  merit. 
Wherever  they  have  had  an  opportunity  to  compete  with  us 
on  the  same  ground,  and  with  equal  advantages,  they  have 
shown  that  the  difference  between  them  and  us  in  intellectu- 
ality is  so  slight,  if  it  exists  at  all,  that  it  does  not  become  us 
to  say  much  about  it. 

The  morality  of  the  Chinese  presents  another  subject 
about  which  there  is  a wide  difference  of  opinion.  They  are 
so  generally  spoken  of  as  a “ nation  of  thieves  and  liars,”  that 
a person  who  is  not  disposed  to  adopt  or  sanction  these  and 
similar  stereotyped  expressions,  is  in  danger  of  being  regarded 
as  either  ignorant  or  prejudiced.  I was  asked  a short  time 
since  by  a very  worthy  and  intelligent  gentleman  who  finds 


CHINESE  VIEWS  OF  US. 


283 


much  to  love  and  admire  in  the  African  race,  whether  I had 
ever  found  any  traits  of  character  in  the  Chinese  calculated  to 
inspire,  in  any  degree,  feelings  of  respect  and  affection.  It  is 
a question  worth  considering  by  persons  who  entertain  such 
views,  on  what  theory  they  will  account  for  a great,  prosper- 
ous, and  stable  government  being  composed  of  such  utterly 
worthless  materials. 

It  may  be  also  a matter  of  interest  and  profit  to  turn  for  a 
moment  to  the  views  which  the  Chinese  generally  entertain  of 
our  morality,  and  their  reasons  for  these  views.  They  are  all 
familiar  with  the  fact  that  foreigners  introduced  opium  into 
China  in  opposition  to  the  earnest  and  persistent  remon- 
strances of  the  Chinese  government ; that  out  of  the  opium 
trade  grew  the  first  war  with  China ; and  that  when  the  rep- 
resentatives of  Christian  England  urged  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment to  legalize  the  trade  and  make  it  a source  of  revenue, 
the  Chinese  Emperor  replied  that  he  would  not  use  as  a 
means  of  revenue  that  which  brought  suffering  and  misery 
upon  his  people. 

A large  proportion  of  the  representatives  of  our  race  in 
China  are  sailors,  many  of  whom,  when  on  shore,  are  in  a state 
of  intoxication,  and  are  addicted  to  all  kinds  of  wickedness 
and  violence,  while  their  tongues  are  constantly  employed  in 
taking  the  name  of  God  in  vain  in  the  most  horrid,  offensive, 
and  heaven-daring  oaths.  For  years  foreigners  of  this  class 
have  commanded  many  of  the  piratical  fleets  on  the  coast  of 
China,  and  foreign  thieves  and  robbers  have  infested  some  of 
the  inland  canals  and  rivers.  In  business  dealings  with 
strangers  from  Western  lands,  the  natives  find  that  duplicity 
and  dishonesty  are  not  confined  to  their  own  people.  More- 
over, they  observe  a certain  and  numerous  class  of  native 
women  in  the  foreign  communities,  which  are  known  to  be- 
long to  the  foreigners,  and  who  appear  in  the  streets  with  a 
boldness  and  effrontery  which  wTould  be  regarded  as  utter- 
ly indecent  and  intolerable  in  most  Chinese  cities.  Stereo- 
scopic views  are  imported  from  the  West  in  large  quantities, 


284 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


of  the  vilest  and  most  obscene  character  imaginable,  picturing 
before  the  eye  vices  and  crimes  of  our  race  which  we  would 
blush  to  name.  My  indignation  knew  no  bounds  when,  a few 
years  since,  I found  these  stereoscopic  views  exhibited  in  the 
streets  of  a city  six  hundred  miles  in  the  interior  by  a China- 
man who  had  invested  a little  capital  in  them,  and  was  mak- 
ing a large  income  by  showing  them  to  hundreds  of  natives 
daily.  Is  it  strange  that,  with  such  facts  as  these  forced  upon 
their  attention,  the  Chinese  should  come  to  the  conclusion 
that  as  a race,  we  are  ambitious,  unscrupulous,  violent,  covet- 
ous, and  licentious  ? 

I would  be  very  sorry  to  be  regarded  as  preferring  whole- ' 
sale  charges  of  immorality  against  foreigners  in  China  as  a 
class.  Such  a course  is  certainly  the  farthest  from  my  in- 
tentions. It  is  hardly  necessary  to  state  that  there  are  not  a 
few  to  be  found  there,  in  the  civil  and  naval  services  as  well 
as  among  merchants,  ship-captains,  and  seamen,  who  are  men 
of  the  highest  moral  and  Christian  character,  and  whose  lives 
are  above  reproach.  It  is  also  sadly  true  that  many  sustain  a 
very  different  character,  and  that  it  is  in  the  power  of  even  a 
few  unprincipled  and  wicked  men  to  bring  reproach  and 
shame  upon  their  whole  nation  and  race.  The  facts  to  which 
I have  referred,  and  others  of  the  same  class  and  character, 
are  familiar  to  every  one  who  has  been  a few  months  in  China. 

But,  it  may  be  said,  these  ideas  of  us  are  derived  from  an 
acquaintance  with  a very  few  individuals  who  are  away  from 
home  and  its  restraining  influences,  while  our  opinions  of  the 
Chinese  are  obtained  from  a view  of  Chinese  society  on  Chi- 
nese soil.  Let  us  suppose  then,  that  a Chinaman  has  come 
to  our  country  not  prepossessed  in  our  favor,  to  gain  from 
facts  on  the  ground  a knowledge  of  the  morality  which  pre- 
vails among  us. 

Going  on  shore,  he  is  asked  to  pay  to  the  carriage-driver  a 
fee  which  seems  to  him  most  exorbitant.  Being  shown  to 
his  room  in  one  of  our  first-class  hotels,  he  discovers  a printed 
notice  informing  him  that  “Valuables,  in  order  to  be  safe, 


A CHINESE  SEEKING  INFORMATION. 


285 


must  be  locked  up  in  the  iron  chest ; guests  leave  their  Over- 
coats in  their  rooms  at  their  own  risk ; and  the  proprietor 
will  not  be  held  responsible  for  boots  left  outside  the  door.” 
Taking  up  the  daily  papers,  he  finds  a large  portion  of  them 
occupied  with  accounts  of  robberies,  burglaries,  murders, 
cases  of  poisoning,  suicide,  forgery,  defalcation,  divorces, 
elopements,  etc.,  etc.  Turning  from  these  daily  items  of 
news  to  the  advertisement  columns,  he  finds  in  many  pajiers 
which  are  regarded  as  respectable,  and  are  freely  received 
into  every  family,  that  the  attention  of  the  public  is  called,  in 
language  carefully  worded  but  well'  understood,  to  some  new 
and  approved  method  of  destroying  the  incipient  life  of  their 
offspring.  In  the  political  papers  he  sees  wholesale  charges 
of  corruption,  disloyalty,  and  selfish,  private,  and  partisan 
schemes.  What  materials  for  illustrating  American  morals, 
gathered  on  the  ground  from  competent  witnesses  the  very 
first  day ! 

When  the  Oriental  traveller,  in  pursuit  of  the  desired  in- 
formation, visits  the  drinking-saloons  in  almost  every  street 
and  alley,  and  the  gambling-houses,  so  numerous  in  our  large 
cities,  to  say  nothing  of  other  haunts  of  profligacy,  his  pre- 
conceived opinions  of  the  morality,  or,  rather,  the  immorality, 
of  our  people  would  not  be  much  changed  for  the  better. 

Or  we  may  imagine  him  landing  on  our  Western  shores 
and  deriving  his  first  information  from  his  own  people  who 
have  immigrated  there.  They  state  to  him  the  facts  that, 
from  their  first  arrival  in  California,  they  are  subjected  to 
extortion  and  plunder ; and  that  after  paying  for  a license 
to  work  in  our  mines,  other  charges  are  exacted  on  false  pre- 
tenses, either  by  officials  or  those  who  feign  to  be  so.  If  any 
of  them  are  so  fortunate  as  to  obtain  a spot  in  the  mines 
which  yields  a rich  return,  they  are  summarily  driven  from  it. 
If  it  be  known  that  a Chinaman  has  accumulated  gold,  he  is 
in  great  danger  of  having  it  taken  from  him,  and  is  fortunate 
if  his  life  is  not  taken  with  it,  for  well-known  murders  of  this 
kind  have  not  been  infrequent.  With  all  these  oppressive 


286 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


grievances,  this  inoffensive,  industrious,  and  misused  people 
have  no  means  of  defense.  They  are  not  permitted  to  bear 
testimony  in  our  courts,  and  they  seldom  find  an  American 
who  will  be  a witness  for  them.  The  undeniable  result  is 
soon  reached  by  the  inquiring  visitor  that,  in  this  boasted 
land  of  liberty  and  law,  there  is  for  them  no  justice  and  no 
redress. 

The  Chinese  traveller  avould  find  the  statements  of  his 
countrymen  in  California  confirmed  by  the  independent  testi- 
mony of  our  own  people  such  as  the  following  from  a promi- 
nent preacher  in  Brooklyn : “We  pretend  to  be  an  asylum 
for  the  oppressed,  a school-house  for  the  ignorant  of  the  earth, 
and  yet  grant  no  means  of  advancement  beyond  manual  labor, 
and  no  adequate  means,  even  of  legal  protection,  to  the  indus- 
trious but  unknowing  Chinaman.  This  is  too  true  a picture. 
There  can  be  but  little  doubt  but  that  one  of  the  first  things 
to  be  attended  to  by  the  newly-arrived  Chinese  Embassy  will 
present  itself  in  the  civil  disabilities  and  outrageous  treatment 
of  the  patient  Mongolians  in  California.  And  it  should  be; 
their  position  here  is  scandalous  to  a Christian  nation,  still 
more  so  to  one  claiming  the  peculiarly  Christian  principles  of 
self-government,  and  mutual  equality  before  the  laws. 

“ Last  winter  a bill  came  up  in  the  California  Legislature 
to  allow  Chinamen  to  testify  in  certain  cases  in  the  civil  and 
criminal  courts ; but  the  Assembly  rejected  the  bill,  and  vir- 
tually gave  free  license  to  all  ruffians  and  robbers,  provided 
they  are  white  men,  to  inflict  such  outrages  as  they  choose 
upon  the  pbor  Mongolian  without  fear  of  legal  penalty. 

“ The  fifty  thousand  Chinese  in  California  are,  taken  all  in 
all,  if  not  the  most  intelligent,  highly  educated,  and  wealthy, 
certainly  the  most  patient,  quiet,  law-abiding,  industrious, 
peaceable,  and  honest  set  that  California  can  show.  The  pro- 
portion of  criminals  and  law-breakers  among  them  is  wonder- 
fully small,  as  compared  with  all  other  classes ; and  as  they 
evidently  have  in  them  the  elements  of  good  citizens,  the  State 
ought  to  protect  them  in  every  way,  encourage  their  industry, 


REASONS  FOR  MORE  FAVORABLE  VIEWS. 


287 


foster  their  good  disposition,  and  prepare  them  at  some  future 
time  to  become  full  members  of  the  community.” 

And  now,  what  do  all  these  evidences  which  a Chinaman 
might  collect  to  prove  the  immorality#and  injustice  of  Euro- 
peans and  Americans  show  ? They  show  how  easy  it  is  to 
confirm  preconceived  judgments  by  an  array  of  partial  facts, 
and  also  that  we  are  far  from  being  faultless  in  matters  where- 
of we  accuse  others. 

There  are  many  other  facts  which  tend  to  give  a more  fa- 
vorable opinion  of  the  Chinese  than  is  generally  entertained 
of  them.  It  is  the  testimony  of  foreigners  generally  that  the 
laboring  classes  make  excellent  servants.  There  are  excep- 
tions to  this  statement,  some  persons  representing  them  as  very 
inetficient  and  unreliable.  The  probability  may  be  inferred  in 
these  cases  that  the  employers  have  been  unfortunate,  either 
in  the  selection  or  management  of  those  in  their  service.  Dur- 
ing our  residence  of  ten  years  in  China,  we  hardly  ever  had 
occasion  to  dismiss  a servant ; in  nearly  every  case  a strong 
attachment  sprang  up  between  them  and  us ; and,  in  more  in- 
stances than  one,  I have  felt  personally  grateful  for  services 
and  attentions  which  I could  no#  reasonably  have  required,  and 
which  were  all  the  more  gratifying,  because  rendered  sponta- 
neously and  heartily.  The  only  thing  which  I recollect  to  have 
had  stolen  was  an  old  clock,  which  was  taken  by  an  opium- 
smoker,  and  found  a few  days  afterward.  We  had  so  little 
fear  of  theft  that  our  doors  and  drawers  were  often  left  un- 
locked, and  servants  and  numerous  visitors  had  free  access  to 
every  part  of  our  house.  I am  aware  that  others,  both  mis- 
sionaries and  merchants,  have  had  a different  experience,  and 
that,  especially  in  the  foreign  communities,  it  is  as  dangerous 
to  leave  coats  and  umbrellas  near  the  hall-door  when  unlocked 
as  it  would  be  in  New  York  or  Philadelphia.  I have  travelled 
hundreds  of  miles  in  the  interior,  at  different  times  and  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country,  sometimes  entirely  alone,  and  have 
been  completely  in  the  power  of  perfect  strangers,  who  knew 
that  I had  about  my  person  money  and  other  articles  of  value ; 


28S 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


but  have  always  felt  nearly  as  great  a sense  of  security  as  at 
home,  and  have  hardly  ever  been  treated  with  rudeness  or  vio- 
lence, though  I have  been  often  annoyed  beyond  measure  by 
exorbitant  charges  anc^useless  detentions.  I have  heard  the 
testimony  of  prominent  merchants  who  have  had  large  busi- 
ness transactions  with  the  Chinese,  both  in  China  and  Califor- 
nia, who  have  represented  Chinese  business  men  as  very  prompt 
and  reliable  in  meeting  their  business  engagements.  The  con- 
fidence often  placed  in  Chinese  agents  is  seen  in  the  fact  that 
they  are  sent  into  the  interior  with  large  sums  of  money  to 
purchase  silks  and  tea,  the  persons  employing  them  having  no 
guarantee  or  dependence  but  that  of  their  personal  honesty. 
I have  known  genuine  “ one-priced  stores  ” in  China  where 
you  are  sure  to  obtain  a good  article  at  a reasonable  price. 
There  are  also  false  “ one-priced  stores,”  and  it  is  not  safe  to 
trust  them  from  simply  looking  at  the  sign. 

I may  say  further,  that  I have  met  with  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  instances  of  affection,  attachment,  and  gratitude  in 
China  which  I have  ever  known ; and  that  it  lias  been  my  priv- 
ilege to  form  the  acquaintance  of  not  a few  Chinese,  whom  I 
regard  with  more  than  ordinary  affection  and  respect,  on  ac- 
count of  the  natural  amiability  of  their  dispositions,  their  ster- 
ling integrity,  and  thorough  Christian  principle  and  devotion. 

On  the  general  subject  of  Chinese  morality,  and  especially 
of  the  Chinese  moral  teachings,  I am  happy  to  be  able  to  quote 
the  opinions  of  two  prominent  English  writers,  who,  from  long 
residence  in  China  as  civil  officers  of  the  English  government, 
and  a familiar  acquaintance  with  the  people  and  their  litera- 
ture, may  certainly  be  regarded  as  competent  witnesses.  The 
following  passage  is  quoted  with  approbation  by  Thomas  Tay- 
lor Meadows,  from  the  writings  of  Sir  John  Davis : “ The 
most  commendable  feature  of  their  (the  Chinese)  system  is 
the  general  diffusion  of  elementary  moral  education  among  the 
lower  orders.  It  is  in  the  preference  of  moral  to  physical  in- 
struction that  even  we  might  perhaps  wisely  take  a leaf  out 
of  the  Chinese  book,  and  do  something  to  reform  this  most 


CHINESE  VIEWS  OF  PROPRIETY. 


289 


mechanical  age  of  ours.”  The  opinion  of  Mr.  Meadows  on 
this  subject  is  thus  expressed : “No  people,  whether  of  ancient 
or  modern  times,  has  possessed  a sacred  literature  so  complete- 
ly exempt  as  the  Chinese  from  licentious  descriptions,  and 
from  every  offensive  expression.  There  is  not  a single  sen- 
tence in  the  whole  of  their  sacred  books  and  their  annotations 
that  may  not,  when  translated  word  for  word,  be  read  aloud  in 
any  family  in  England.” 

It  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  Chinese  give  many  evi- 
dences, not  only  in  their  literature,  but  also  in  their  paintings 
and  sculpture,  of  a scrupulous  care  to  avoid  all  indecent  and 
immoral  associations  and  suggestions.  I have  already  remark- 
ed, in  a former  chapter,  that  a nude  representation  of  the  hu- 
man form  is  hardly  to  be  found  among  the  innumerable  idols 
and  images  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  I can  easily  imagine  the 
members  of  the  Chinese  Embassy,  when  visiting  the  United 
States,  much  shocked  by  some  of  the  representations  in  paint- 
ing and  sculpture  which  they  see  in  our  art  galleries.  We 
have  borrowed  this  custom  of  the  public  exhibition  of  nude 
figures  from  the  idolatrous  nations  of  Greece  and  Rome,  the 
morality  of  whose  people  and  gods  Avas  below  that  of  the  Chi- 
nese. A professed  admiration  of  the  beauty  of  “ the  human 
form  divine  ” is  but  a poor  excuse  for  this  custom,  \\Thile  in 
our  fashions  and  mode  of  dress  we  adopt  models  which  are  any 
thing  but  natural,  and,  by  following  Avhicli,  an  artist  would 
meet  Avith  universal  and  merited  reprobation  and  disgrace. 

In  referring  to  the  above  peculiarity  of  Chinese  vieAvs  and 
customs,  I am  not,  of  course,  speaking  of  the  private  lives  and 
practices  of  this  people,  but  of  their  standard  of  propriety,  and 
of  AA’hat  the  public  taste  requires  in  objects  Avhich  are  openly 
represented,  to  be  seen  and  admired  by  the  young  and  old  of 
both  sexes.  It  may  be  said  of  the  Chinese  as  truly  as  of  oth- 
ers : “ It  is  a shame  even  to  speak  of  the  things  Avhich  are 
done  of  them  in  secret.” 

What,  then,  is  the  conclusion  of  this  whole  matter  ? Sim- 
ply this,  that  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  every  species  of  vice  and 

N 


290 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


immorality  both  in  China  and  at  home,  and  that,  on  the  other 
hand,  we  may  find  exhibitions  of  the  better  principles  of  our 
nature  in  both  countries  if  we  are  disposed  to  seek  them.  The 
standard  and  the  practice  of  virtue  are  almost  necessarily, 
and,  as  might  be  expected,  lower  in  China  than  in  Christian 
lands,  but  the  wonder  to  my  mind  is,  considering  our  superior 
advantages,  that  the  difference  is  not  greater.  It  is  certainly 
not  so  striking  as  to  form  the  basis  of  a very  marked  contrast, 
or  to  render  it  modest  or  prudent  for  us  to  designate  any  par- 
ticular vice,  or  class  of  vices,  as  peculiar  to,  and  especially  char- 
acteristic of  the  Chinese.  I believe  that,  taking  into  view  our 
religious  and  spiritual  privileges  and  training,  we  are  more  to 
be  blamed  as  individuals  and  as  a nation  for  not  having  reach- 
ed a higher  standard  of  morality  than  the  Chinese  are. 

I am  persuaded  also  that  the  effect  of  close  and  familiar 
acquaintance  with  the  Chinese  or  any  other  nation  is  to  pro- 
duce and  deepen  the  impression  of  a common  origin  and  na- 
ture. At  first  we  notice  external  peculiarities^  of  complexion, 
dress,  and  manners,  which  are  superficial,  accidental,  and  un- 
important ; but  by  degrees  we  become  almost  unconscious  of 
these  outward  differences,  as  we  notice  multiplied  evidence 
of  common  instincts  and  longings,  doubts  and  fears,  joys  and 
sorrows,  virtues  and  vices.  We  see  the  same  indications  of 
a noble  and  godlike  nature  suffering  under  the  effects  of  a 
terrible  catastrophe  or  fall,  swayed  by  conflicting  tendencies 
and  impulses,  and  utterly  unable  to  find  the  ark  of  rest  and 
peace.  In  the  Eastern  or  Western  hemisphere,  “ as  in  water 
face  answereth  to  face,  so  the  heart  of  man  to  man.” 

It  is  quite  probable  that  the  views  which  I have  presented 
will  be  regarded  by  some  as  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  re- 
ligion and  missions.  Indeed  I have  been  expostulated  with 
by  some  worthy  and  pious  people,  who  have  told  me  that 
if  I represented  the  Chinese  as,  on  the  whole,  “ so  well  off,” 
and  in  many  respects  “ a very  good  sort  of  people,”  Chris- 
tians would  not  care  to  do  any  thing  for  them.  That  a high 
degi’ee  of  intellectual,  social,  and  even  moral  culture,  is  con- 


UNWARRANTED  INFERENCES. 


291 


sistent  with  the  greatest  spiritual  ignorance  ancl  destitution, 
seems  to  many  inconceivable  or  impossible,  though  the  fact 
has  been  illustrated  in  every  period  of  the  world’s  history. 
Strange  and  inexplicable  as  it  may  appear,  that  a thinking  and 
intelligent  race  like  the  Chinese  should  be  so  ignorant  of  God, 
and  such  gross  idolaters,  it  is  not  more  so  than  that  the  tna- 
jority  of  those  in  nominally  Christian  lands  who  are  possess- 
ed  of  an  acknowledged  revelation  from  God  should  live  in  al- 
most utter  disregard  of  it.  A system  of  morality  may  be  as 
effective  a means  of  keeping  the  soul  away  from  God  as  one 
of  idolatry,  and,  in  some  cases,  more  so.  Pride  of  intellect  and 
false  systems  of  philosophy  have  the  same  tendency.  In  Chi- 
na Satan  has  used  all  these  instrumentalities  combined. 

Some  persons  are  so  accustomed  to  associate  ignorance  of 
God  with  the  lowest  moral  degradation  and  lawlessness,  that 
they  expect  to  hear,  in  the  representations  of  missionaries 
from  whatever  part  of  the  heathen  world  they  may  come, 
only  of  scenes  of  barbarism  and  tales  of  horror.  I have  known 
of  a profound  impression  having  been  produced  by  an  address 
of  a returned  missionary  from  the  East  many  years  ago,  who 
stated  that  such  was  the  character  of  Chinese  society  and  the 
condition  of  women,  especially  of  daughters-in-law,  in  the  hus- 
band’s family,  that  he  had  known  of  “ five  sisters  who,  sever- 
^al  years  after  their  marriage,  met  for  the  first  time  at  their 
own  father’s  house.  On  recounting  their  experiences  of  tyr- 
anny and  ill-treatment  from  mothers-in-law  and  husbands, 
they  were  so  impressed  with  the  utter  worthlessness  of  lives 
such  as  theirs,  and  the  miseries  of  their  intolerable  lot,  that 
they  resolved  upon  suicide,  and  all  went  hand  in  hand  to  a 
neighboring  canal  and  buried  themselves  beneath  its  waters.” 
This  has  been  remembered  for  more  than  thirty  years,  and  has 
gone  far  to  fix,  perhaps,  in  many  minds  the  character  and  con- 
dition of  the  “wretched  Chinese.”  It  would  be  easy  to 
collect  enough  of  such  incidents  to  fill  up  an  evening  lecture, 
giving  to  it  a thrilling  interest,  and  producing,  perhaps,  a pro- 
found impression ; but  the  impression  produced  would  be 


292 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


par.tial  and  incomplete  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  absolutely 
false.  Most  conditions  in  life  have  a sunny  as  well  as  a shady 
side ; I have  endeavored  to  bring  to  view  both,  and  to  pre- 
sent the  condition  and  character  of  the  Chinese  as  it  is,  con- 
fident that  no  harm  can  result,  either  to  religion  or  science, 
from  the  statement  of  facts.  The  inhabitants  of  Rome  and  of 
Athens  at  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era  were  very  intel- 
ligent and  respectable  people,  and  their  condition,  as  regards 
this  life,  was  not  such  as  to  excite  commiseration ; but  these 
facts  do  not  seem  to  have  dampened  the  missionary  zeal  of  St. 
Paul,  or  caused  him  to  relax  in  his  efforts  to  preach  to  them 
the  Gospel  of  Christ.  It  is  but  a weak,  sickly,  and  imperfect- 
ly enlightened  Christianity,  which  can  only  be  roused  to  ac- 
tivity by  tales  of  physical  distress,  while  it  is  insensible  to 
the  spiritual  condition  of  vast  multitudes  who  are  without  a 
knowledge  of  God  and  of  a way  of  salvation ; treats  with 
comparative  indifference  the  solemn  command  of  Jesus  to 
evangelize  the  nations,  and  finds  no  powerful  motive  to  exer- 
tion in  the  work  of  extending  the  spiritual  triumphs  of  the 
Redeemer,  and  contributing  to  the  establishment  on  earth  of 
His  universal  kingdom  and  glory. 


ISOLATION  OF  THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE. 


293 


CHAPTER  XX. 

INTERCOURSE  OP  WESTERN  NATIONS  WITH  CHINA. 

Isolation.  — Antiquity  and  Chronology.  — Early  Reference  to  China  in 
Greek  and  Roman  History. — A Jewish  Colony  in  Kai-fung-foo. — The 
Nestorians  and  their  Labors. — Marco  Polo. — Early  Romish  Missions. — 
First  War  with  England,  and  the  Opening  of  the  Five  Treaty  Ports  in 
1842. — Events  which  led  to  the  last  War  with  England  and  France,  and 
to  the  Treaties  which  are  now  in  Force. — Our  present  Relations. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  facts  in  connection  with  China 
is  its  comparative  isolation  for  thirty  centuries  from  other 
nations  of  the  globe — an  isolation  which  at  times  has  been  so 
complete  that  the  “ Middle  Kingdom”  has  been  almost  as  un- 
known to  the  rest  of  the  world  as  if  it  belonged  to  a different 
planet.  Between  Western  nations  and  the  nations  of  Central 
Asia,  many  evident  connections  may  be  traced  in  their  his- 
tories, languages,  traditions,  and  religions,  but  not  so  with 
China.  It  seems  to  have  been  a world  by  itself,  uninfluenced 
by  the  ideas,  and  undisturbed  by  the  convulsions  of  other 
countries,  having  a form  of  civilization  and  government  pe- 
culiarly her  own,  and  resembling  other  races  only  in  this,  that 
its  people  are  possessed  of  the  same  common  nature. 

The  isolation  of  the  Chinese  Empire  has  been  due  to  its 
position  in  the  extreme  limits  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  the  great 
difficulties  which  for  ages  prevented  reaching  it  by  sea,  and 
which  still  render  it  impracticable  to  reach  it  by  an  overland 
route  across  the  Himalaya  Mountains. 

I do  not  propose  to  enter  upon  the  vexed  and  difficult  ques- 
tion of  the  antiquity  of  China,  or  to  endeavor  to  fix  the  bound- 
ary between  its  mythological  period  and  its  authentic  history, 
much  less  to  note  the  long  succession  of  its  dynasties  and  the 
events  connected  with  them.  But  as  the  subject  of  its  an- 


294 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


tiquity  is  one  of  much  interest,  I will  simply  give  the  opinion 
and  conclusions  relating  to  it  of  some  of  our  most  trustworthy 
modern  writers. 

Among  those  who  place  the  period  of  reliable  Chinese  rec- 
ords nearest  to  our  time  is  Sir  John  Davis,  whose  views  are 
expressed  as  follows : “ The  period  of  authentic  history  may 
be  considered  as  dating  from  the  race  of  Chow,  in  whose 
time  Confucius  himself  lived ; for  although  it  might  be  going 
too  far  to  condemn  all  that  precedes  that  period  as  absolutely 
fabulous,  it  is  still  so  mixed  up  with  fable  as  hardly  to  deserve 
the  name  of  history.”  The  reign  of  the  race  of  Chow  begins 
about  one  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era.  The  prin- 
cipal evidence  referred  to  by  this  writer  to  cast  discredit  upon 
antecedent  records  is  found  in  the  assertions  that  “ Yu  is  de- 
scribed as  nine  cubits  in  height ; and  it  is  stated  that  the  skies 
rained  gold  for  three  days.”  In  answer  to  this  objection, 
Williams  justly  remarks  : “ This  height  is  but  little  more  than 
that  of  Og  of  Bashan ; and  if  Kin,  here  called  gold,  be  trans- 
lated metal  (which  it  can  just  as  well  be),  it  may  be  a notice 
of  a meteoric  shower  of  extraordinary  duration.” 

The  following  is  Williams’s  opinion  : “ Chinese  mythologi- 
cal history  ends  with  the  appearance  of  Fuh-hi,  and  their 
chronology  should  not  be  charged  with  the  long  period  ante- 
cedent varying  from  forty-five  to  five  hundred  thousand  years, 
for  the  people  themselves  do  not  believe  this  duration.  These 
periods,  however,  are  a mere  twinkling,  compared  with  the 
Kulpas  of  the  Hindoos,  whose  highest  era,  called  the  “ Un- 
speakably Inexpressible,”  requires  4,456,448,  ciphers  following 
a unit  to  represent  it. 

“ The  accession  of  Fuh-hi  is  placed  in  the  Chinese  annals 
b.o.  2852.”  This  would  be  five  hundred  and  eight  years  be- 
fore the  Deluge,  according  to  the  chronology  of  Usher ; and 
three  hundred  and  three  years  after,  if  we  follow  that  of  Hales. 

In  endeavoring  to  discover  points  of  contact  of  the  history 
of  China  with  that  of  other  countries,  an  attempt  has  been 
made  to  identify  the  Noachic  Deluge  with  a notable  flood  re- 


EARLY  HISTORICAL  REFERENCES  TO  CHINA.  295 

corded  in  tlie  Chinese  annals  in  connection  with  the  Emperor 
Yu,  which,  if  we  credit  Chinese  history,  took  place  b.c.  2293. 
This  flood,  according  to  Usher,  synchronizes  with  the  Deluge 
of  Scripture,  with  the  variation  of  only  fifty-five  years.  It  is 
the  general  opinion,  however,  that  the  Chinese  record  refers 
to  an  unusual  inundation  of  the  Yellow  River,  and  that  this 
supposed  single  coincidence  between  the  sacred  Scriptures 
and  the  early  history  of  China  is  not  established  by  sufficient 
evidence. 

Thomas  Taylor  Meadows,  in  his  work  “ The  Chinese  and 
their  Rebellion,”  gives  the  following  statement : “ Authentic, 
though  not  full  records,  embodying  ethical  and  political  doc- 
trines, extend  back  to  b.c.  2357,  or  to  about  eighteen  hundred 
years  before  Confucius,  while  the  Chinese  philosophy  origi- 
nated with  Fuli-hi,  who  lived,  according  to  the  tradition,  some 
twenty-three  generations  before  the  exact  chronological  era, 
which  latter  took  place  b.c.  2t337,  with  the  institution  of  the 
national  cycle  of  sixty  years.  Allowing  thirty  years  to  one 
generation,  this  would  place  Fuh-hi  about  b.c.  3327.” 

It  will  be  seen  that,  while  writers  who  have  investigated 
this  subject,  differ  widely  in  their  conclusions,  none  of  them 
fix  the  period  of  the  authentic  history  of  China  less  distant 
from  our  time  than  about  three  thousand  years. 

References  of  a vague  and  uncircumstantial  character  to  a 
country  now  generally  believed  to  be  China  are  found  in  the 
works  of  Greek  and  Roman  historians,  principally  in  the  writ- 
ings of  Ptolemy  and  Arian,  who  lived  in  the  second  century. 
Ptolemy  states  that  he  derived  his  information  from  the  agents 
of  Macedonian  traders.  These  agents,  who  probably  belonged 
to  some  of  the  Tartar  tribes  of  Central  Asia,  gave  him  an  ac- 
count of  a journey  of  seven  months  from  the  principal  city 
of  Eastern  Turkistan  in  a direction  east,  inclining  a little 
south.  They  represented  the  most  eastern  nation  of  Asia 
under  the  name  of  Serica,  and  stated  that  on  the  borders  of 
this  kingdom  they  met,  and  traded  with  its  inhabitants,  the 
Seres. 


296 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


Herodotus  speaks  of  the  Isadores,  as  a people  in  the  ex- 
treme north-east  of  Asia.  Ptolemy  also  mentions  these  tribes 
as  a part  of  Serica,  and  under  its  sway. 

Ammianus  Marcellinus,  a Roman  historian  of  the  fourth 
century,  speaks  of  the  land  of  the  Seres  as  surrounded  by  a 
high  and  continuous  wall.  This  was  about  six  hundred  years 
after  the  great  wall  of  Northern  China  was  built. 

Virgil,  Pliny,  Tacitus,  and  Juvenal  refer  to  the  Seres  in 
connection  with  the  Seric  garments,  which  seem  to  have  been 
made  of  fine  silk  or  gauze.  This  article  of  dress  was  much 
sought  after  in  Rome  by  the  wealthy  and  luxurious,  and  as 
late  as  the  second  century  is  said  to  have  been  worth  its 
Aveight  in  gold. 

Now,  from  the  length  and  direction  of  the  route  of  the 
traders  just  referred  to,  the  description  of  the  mountains  and 
rivers  which  they  passed,  the  character  of  the  people  Avith 
Avhom.  they  traded,  and  the  articles  of  traffic,  the  evidence 
seems  almost  conclusive  that  the  nation  Avhich  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  designated  by  the  name  Serica  is  that  now  knoAvn 
to  us  as  China. 

The  particular  countries  visited  by  the  caravans  Avhich 
brought  the  silk  to  Europe  Avere  probably  the  dependencies 
or  territories  of  China  on  the  Avest,  or  possibly  cities  Avithin 
the  extreme  north-Avest  limits  of  China  proper.  The  informa- 
tion coiweyed  by  these  traders,  who  Avere  probably  ignorant 
of  the  Chinese  language,  Avas  necessarily  imperfect  and  limit- 
ed, and  the  communication  carried  on  through  them  had  little 
or  no  effect  either  on  China  or  the  West.  Little  was  knoAvn 
of  the  Seres,  except  that  such  a people  existed,  and  that  one 
of  their  productions,  silk  fabrics,  excelled  in  richness  and  beau- 
ty any  article  of  dress  in  the  knoAvn  Avorld.  These  fabrics 
Avere  spoken  of  by  the  Romans  as  a product  of  barbarian  lux- 
ury; and  the  traders  from  Macedonia  and  Rome  Avere  no 
doubt  spoken  of  in  China  as  barbarians  from  the  West,  who 
had  been  attracted  to  the  “ Central  Flowery  Land  ” by  the  be- 
nign influences  of  its  superior  civilization,  and  a -desire  to  car- 


JEWS  AND  NESTORIANS  IN  CHINA.  297 

ry  back  to  their  own  territories  the  evidences  of  its  luxury 
and  refinement. 

The  introduction  of  Judaism  in  China  is  evidenced  by  a 
Jewish  synagogue  which  existed  until  quite  recently  in  Kai- 
fung-foo,  a city  in  the  province  of  Honan.  Connected  with 
this  synagogue  were  some  Hebrew  manuscripts  and  a few 
worshipers,  who  retained  some  of  the  forms  of  their  religion, 
but  very  little  knowledge  of  its  real  character  and  spirit. 
They  are  called  in  China  the  Tiau-kin  kiciu — “ The  Sect  which 
plucks  out  the  Sinew.”  There  is  a great  deal  of  uncertainty 
as  to  when  the  Jews  came  to  China,  though  they  have,  no 
doubt,  resided  there  for  many  centuries.  The  remaining 
buildings  and  timbers  of  this  synagogue  have  recently  been 
sold,  and  this  little  remnant  which  has  been  preserved  long- 
enough  to  afford  evidence  that  Jews  and  Judaism  have 
reached  the  extreme  limits  of  the  East  will  probably  soon  be 
extinct. 

Nestorian  missionaries  entered  China  some  time  before 
the  seventh  century.  The  principal  record  which  they  have 
left  of  the  success  of  their  missions  is  the  celebrated  Hesto- 
rian  monument  in  Se-ngan  foo.  This  monument  contains  a 
short  history  of  this  sect  from  the  year  630  to  781,  and  also 
an  abstract  of  the  Christian  religion.  The  missionaries  of  this 
sect  have  left  but  few  records  of  their  labors,  or  of  their  ob- 
servations as  travellers.  The  churches  planted  by  them  seem 
to  have  existed  until  a comparatively  recent  period.  The  Rom- 
ish missionaries,  who  entered  China  in  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  found  them  possessed  of  considerable 
influence,  not  only  among  the  people,  but  also  at  court,  and 
met  with  no  little  opposition  from  them  in  their  first  at- 
tempts to  introduce  the  doctrines  of  their  Church.  It  is 
, natural  and  reasonable  to  hope  that,  during  the  period  of  near 
eight  hundred  years  in  which  Nestorian  Christianity  maintain  ■ 
ed  its  foothold  in  China,  large  numbers  from  that  empire  be- 
came savingly  acquainted  with  the  truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus. 
There  is  evidence,  however,  that,  in  process  of  time,  the  Nes- 

N 2 


298 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


torian  churches  departed  widely  from  the  truth  and  simplic- 
ity of  the  Gospel.  After  the  fall  of  the  Mongolian  Empire, 
they  were  cut  off  from  connection  with  the  West,  and  not  hav- 
ing sufficient  vitality  to  resist  the  adverse  influences  of  hea- 
thenism, their  people  by  degrees  either  relapsed  into  idolatry 
or  adopted  the  Romish  faith. 

The  first  Western  writer  whose  works  are  extant,  who  has 
given  any  thing  like  full  and  explicit  information  respecting 
China,  is  Marco  Polo.  He  went  to  China  in  the  year  1274  in 
company  with  his  father  and  uncle,  Avho  were  Venetian  noble- 
men. At  this  time  the  independent  nomad  tribes  of  Cen- 
tral Asia  being  united  in  one  government  under  the  successors 
of  Zinghis  Khan,  it  became  practicable  to  reach  Eastern  Asia 
by  passing  through  the  Mongolian  Empire.  Marco  Polo  spent 
twenty-four  years  in  China,  and  seems  to  have  been  treated 
kindly  and  hospitably.  The  suspicion  and  distrust  which  the 
Chinese  have  manifested  toward  Western  nations  during  the 
last  few  centuries  are  not  so  much  the  result  of  their  natural 
dispositions,  or  the  teachings  of  their  sages,  as  of  their  unfor- 
tunate and  prejudicing  experience  in  their  intercourse  with 
foreigners. 

After  Marco  Polo’s  return  home,  he  was  taken  prisoner  in 
a Avar  Avith  the  Genoese,  and  during  his  confinement  Avrote  an 
account  of  his  travels.  The  description  he  gives  of  the  vast 
territories  of  China,  its  teeming  population  and  flourishing 
cities,  the  refinement  and  civilization  of  its  people,  and  their 
curious  customs,  seemed  to  his  countrymen  more  like  a fiction 
of  fairy-land  than  sober  and  authentic  narrative.  It  is  said 
that  he  Avas  urged  when  on  his  death-bed  to  retract  these  state- 
ments and  make  confession  of  falsehood,  which  he  refused  to 
do.  More  recent  discoveries  and  information  have  served  to 
confirm  the  truth  of  his  statements,  and  to  establish  his  char- 
acter as  one  of  the  most  remarkable  travellers  of  any  age. 

During  the  period  of  the  Mongolian  Empire,  Avhich  com- 
prehended under  its  sway  the  greater  part  of  Asia  from  China 
on  the  east  to  the  Mediterranean  on  the  Avest,  an  intense  desire 


FIRST  INTRODUCTION  OF  ROMANISM.  299 

was  kindled  in  the  Romish  Church  to  convert  this  powerful 
nation  to  its  faith.  Among  the  first  and  the  most  noted  of 
the  missionaries  sent  to  China  at  this  time  was  John  of  Mount 
Corvin,  who  reached  Pekin  in  1293.  He  was  afterward  made 
archbishop.  From  time  to  time  bishops  and  priests  were 
sent  out  to  re-enforce  this  mission,  but  they  met  with  indiffer- 
ent success ; and  when  the  Mongols  were  driven  from  China 
the  enterprise  was  abandoned  as  a complete  failure.  After 
the  fall  of  the  Mongolian  Empire,  direct  overland  communica- 
tion with  Eastern  Asia  was  interrupted,  and  for  about  two 
hundred  years  China  was  again  almost  completely  isolated 
from  the  Western  world. 

The  use  of  the  magnetic  needle  and  improvements  in  navi- 
gation introduced  a new  era  in  intercourse  with  the  East.  It 
is  supposed  that  the  first  voyage  from  Europe  to  China  was 
made  by  a Portuguese  vessel  in  1516.  From  this  period 
commercial  intercourse  with  that  empire  has  been  more  and 
more  frequent,  and  various  embassies  have  been  sent  to  the 
Chinese  Court  by  different  nations  of  Europe.  Unfortunately, 
the  growing  familiarity  of  the  Chinese  with  Western  nations 
did  not  increase  their  respect  for  and  confidence  in  them. 
This  was  due  partly  to  the  servility  of  most  of  the  embassies 
to  Pekin,  but  principally  no  doubt  to  the  want  of  honesty, 
.and  the  general  lawlessness  of  the  greater  part  of  the  traders 
from  the  West.  The  consequence  was  that  the  Chinese  be- 
came desirous  of  restricting  foreign  intercourse,  and  exerci- 
sing as  strict  surveillance  over  their  troublesome  visitors  as 
possible. 

Immediately  after  a connection  was  established  between 
Europe  and  the  far  East  by  sea,  another  and  a more  success- 
ful effort  was  made  by  the  Romish  Church  to  propagate  its 
faith  in  the  Chinese  Empire.  Francis  Xavier,  in  his  attempt 
to  gain  an  entrance  into  the  country,  died  on  one  of  the  islands 
on  the  coast  in  1552.  Matteo  Ricci,  who  may  well  be  regard- 
ed as  the  Apostle  of  the  Romish  Church  in  China,  established 
himself  in  Canton  in  the  garb  of  a Buddhist  priest  in  1581, 


300 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


He  was  a (man  of  varied  intellectual  gifts  and  extensive  learn- 
ing, united  with  indomitable  energy,  zeal,  and  perseverance, 
and  great  prudence.  In  1601  he  reached  Pekin  in  the  dress 
of  a literary  gentleman.  He  was  much  admired,  and  acquired 
a great  influence  over  the  literary  and  ruling  classes.  His 
labors  and  those  of  his  associates  resulted  in  many  conver- 
sions, and  in  the  establishment  of  churches  in  different  parts 
of  the  empire.  His  successors  during  the  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  following  his  arrival  in  China  succeeded  in  establish- 
ing several  bishoprics,  and  numbered  their  converts  by  hun- 
dreds of  thousands.  During  this  period,  controversies  and  dis- 
sensions sprang  up  between  the  Jesuits  and  Dominicans, 
which,  together  with  other  causes,  produced  suspicions  in  the 
minds  of  the  Chinese  rulers,  and  in  the  year  1723  an  edict 
was  promulgated  prohibiting  the  further  propagation  of  this 
religion  in  the  empire.  From  this  time  the  Roman  Catholics 
were  subjected  to  frequent  and  sometimes  violent  persecu- 
tions, Avith  alternate  periods  of  comparative  toleration.  They 
have  retained  their  position  in  the  face  of  great  difficulties 
and  trials,  and  since  the  late  treaties  with  China  their  converts 
have  rapidly  increased. 

The  most  important  events  in  the  modern  intei’course  of 
Western  nations  with  China  are  its  wars  Avith  England  and 
France,  and  the  treaties  to  Avhich  they  gave  rise.  The  first. 
Avar  Avith  England,  sometimes  called  the  Opium  War,  from 
its  relation  to  and  effects  upon  the  opium  trade,  resulted  in 
the  treaty  of  1842,  Avhich  opened  five  Chinese  ports  to  for- 
eigners, and  ceded  to  the  English  the  small  island  of  Hong- 
kong. In  a feAv  years  the  United  States  and  other  govern- 
ments availed  themselves  of  the  advantages  secured  by  the 
English  in  this  treaty.  It  does  not  fall  within  my  plan  to  dis- 
cuss the  merits  of  this  first  war  with  China.  Justifiable  or 
not,  it  Avas  made  use  of  in  God’s  providence  to  inaugurate  a 
new  era  in  our  relations  with  this  Arast  empire.  Hitherto  trade 
had  been  carried  on  by  sufferance,  and  traders  were  subjected 
to  many  restrictions  and  annoyances.  Foreigners  were  not 


THE  TREATY  OF  1842. 


301 


allowed  to  take  up  a permanent  residence  on  shore,  and  were 
regarded  as  an  inferior  race  of  barbarians  and  vassals. 

A few  Protestant  missionaries  had  commenced  their  labors 
in  some  of  the  Chinese  colonies  along  the  coast,  but  the  great 
Middle  Kingdom  was  still  sealed  against  them.  Morrison  had 
gained  an  entrance  into  Canton  as  an  employe  of  the  East 
India  Company,  and  was  engaged  in  labors  indirectly  bearing 
upon  the  missionary  work,  but  did  not  deem  it  prudent  to  at- 
tempt the  open  proclamation  of  the  Gospel. 

After  the  treaty,  the  Chinese  were  obliged  to  regard  and 
treat  with  foreigners  more  on  terms  of  equality ; a new  im- 
pulse was  given  to  trade,  and  Protestant  missionaries,  as  well 
as  Roman  Catholic,  under  the  protection  of  this  treaty  entered 
the  five  ports,  built  houses  and  chapels,  established  schools, 
and  engaged  in  public  preaching. 

A great  advance  had  been  made,  but  the  work  of  opening 
China  was  yet  incomplete.  The  Chinese,  in  their  intercourse 
with  Europeans,  still  maintained  as  far  as  they  were  able  the 
same  tone  of  superiority  and  authority,  and  showed  a disposi- 
tion to  reduce  the  privileges  extorted  from  them  in  the  treaty 
to  a minimum.  F oreigners  were  closely  confined  to  the  treaty 
ports,  and,  if  found  trespassing  beyond  assigned  limits,  were 
apprehended  and  brought  back  to  their  consuls.  In  Canton 
the  spirit  of  opposition  and  prejudice  was  so  strong  that  the 
people  insisted  on  keeping  foreigners  outside  the  city  wall, 
and  succeeded  in  obliging  them  to  take  up  their  residence  in 
and  confine  themselves  to  the  suburbs. 

It  was  impossible  for  such  a state  of  things  to  continue 
long  without  producing  another  outbreak.  In  1857  a serious 
difficulty  originated  between  the  Chinese  and  British  author- 
ities in  Canton.  Rev.  W.  A.  P.  Martin  wrote  in  May,  1858, 
from  the  north  of  China,  where  he  was  engaged  as  interpret- 
er for  the  American  Embassy,  as  follows : “ The  quarrel  orig- 
inated in  an  occurrence  of  the  most  trivial  character,  and  has 
grown  to  its  present  magnitude  by  a concatenation  of  events 
which  no  human  power  could  have  arranged,  or  human  sagac- 
3 


302 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


ity  foreseen.  It  presents  a striking  instance  of  what  is  so 
often  noticed  in  the  course  of  history — God  accomplishing 
his  great  and  wise  purposes  by  allowing  man  to  pursue  his 
petty,  private,  and  even  unjustifiable  ends.  In  this  case  the 
Divine  purpose  appears  to  be  the  opening  of  China  for  the 
free  promulgation  of  his  blessed  Gospel.  The  wedge  which 
lie  employed  to  cleave  the  first  fissure  in  this  hitherto  unyield- 
ing mass  was  the  iniquitous  traffic  in  opium ; and  the  unjusti- 
fiable practice  of  granting  the  protection  of  the  British  flag 
to  Chinese  vessels  has  furnished  the  occasion  for  the  demoli- 
tion of  the  remaining  barriers.” 

A native  vessel  making  use  of  the  British  flag  (without,  as 
the  Chinese  assert,  any  right  to  do  so)  was  called  to  account, 
and  summarily  dealt  with  by  the  Chinese  authorities.  The 
English,  feeling  that  their  flag  had  been  treated  with  disre- 
spect, demanded  certain  concessions  and  acknowledgments 
which  the  Chinese  were  unwilling  to  grant.  In  consequence 
of  this  refusal,  hostilities  were  commenced  by  the  English, 
who  took  some  forts  on  the  Canton  River,  and  bombarded  and 
took  possession  of  the  city  of  Canton  on  the  29th  of  Decem- 
ber, 1857. 

The  demand  was  now  made  that  imperial  commissioners 
should  be  sent  from  the  capital  with  authority  to  adjust  the 
differences  between  China  and  England,  and  to  form  a new 
treaty.  In  this  demand  the  French  government,  as  an  ally  of 
England,  joined,  and  Shanghai  was  the  place  designated  by 
them  for  the  meeting.  The  Chinese,  in  accordance  with  their 
traditional  policy  to  keep  foreigners  as  far  from  their  capital 
as  possible,  insisted  that  the  interview  between  its  commission- 
ers and  the  representatives  of  the  foreign  powers  should  be 
held  in  Canton  as  formerly. 

The  foreign  ministers  determined  not  to  submit  to  this  ar- 
bitrary and  unreasonable  requisition,  and  proceeded  to  the 
Peiho,  the  port  of  Pekin  in  the  north,  and  insisted  on  an  inter- 
view there.  Here  new  difficulties  arose.  It  w'as  hardly  to  be 
expected  that  matters  would  progress  harmoniously  with  two 

C, 


NEGOTIATIONS  AT  TIEN-TSIN 


805 


parties,  each  of  which  felt  its  superiority,  and  was  determined 
to  dictate  terms  to  the  other.  The  English  and  French  ex- 
pressed themselves  as  dissatisfied  with  the  powers  of  the  im- 
perial commissioners,  and  refused  to  treat  with  them,  and  sent 
• word  to  the  Emperor  that  if  an  officer  of  higher  authority 
were  not  sent  from  the  capital,  they  would  bombard  and  take 
the  forts  at  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho  River.  The  Emperor  dis- 
regarded this  message,  and  the  forts  were  attacked  and  taken 
on  the  20th  of  May,  after  two  hours’  fighting,  and  considerable 
loss  on  both  sides.  Possessing  themselves  of  these  forts,  the 
allies  moved  on  rapidly  toward  Tien-tsin,  accompanied  by  the 
plenipotentiaries  of  the  United  States  and  Russia,  “ who  had 
nearly  completed  the  revision  of  the  treaties,  when  the  rupture 
with  the  English  and  French  broke  off  their  negotiations.” 
The  arrival  of  the  foreign  embassadors  in  Tien-tsin,  accompa- 
nied by  an  armed  force,  occasioned  great  excitement  and  trep- 
idation at  the  capital.  Two  commissioners  of  high  rank  and 
enlarged  powers  were  dispatched  to  meet  the  foreigners,  and, 
if  possible,  adjust  the  difficulties  which  had  arisen.  These 
men  are  thus  described  by  Mr.  Oliphant,  private  secretary  of 
Lord  Elgin : 

“ The  senior  commissioner,  Kweiliang,  was  a venerable  man, 
of  placid  and  benevolent  expression,  with  a countenance  full  of 
intelligence,  though  his  eye  was  somewhat  dimmed,  and  his 
hand  palsied  from  extreme  age.  His  manners  were  polished 
and  dignified,  and  his  whole  bearing  that  of  a perfect  gentle- 
man. He  is  a Tartar,  and  has  risen  to  his  present  high  position 
after  a long  course  of  services.  His  full  titles,  with  which  he 
signed  the  treaties,  were  as  follows:  ‘Kweiliang,  a Senior 
Chief  Secretary  of  State,  styled  of  the  East  Cabinet,  Captain- 
General  of  the  Satin  White  Banner  of  the  Manchu  Banner 
Force,  and  Superintendent-General  of  the  Administration  of 
Criminal  Law.’  Llis  colleague,  Hwashana,  a Mandarin  of  the 
same  grade,  was  a much  younger  man,  with  a square  solid  face 
and  a large  nose.  In  general  appearance,  he  reminded  me 
strongly  of  the  pictures  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  and  in  the  lines 


306 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


KYVEILTANG,  FIRST  IMPERIAL  COMMIGSIOA’EE. 


of  the  lower  part  of  his  countenance  much  firmness  and  decis- 
ion of  character  Avere  apparent.  He  styles  himself  one  of  His 
Imperial  Majesty’s  Expositors  of  the  Classics,  Manchu  Presi- 
dent of  the  Office  for  the^Regulation  of  the  Civil  Establish- 
ment, Captain-General  of  the  Bordered  Blue  Banner  of  the 
Chinese  Banner  Force,  and  Visitor  of  the  Office  of  Interpreta- 
tion.” 

After  sundry  delays  and  ineffectual  attempts  on  the  part 
of  the  Chinese  commissioners  to  avoid  concessions  demanded 
by  the  English,  the  treaty  Avas  at  length  agreed  upon.  Lord 
Elgin,  during  all  the  negotiations,  preserved  a very  determined, 
and  authoritative  bearing,  and  succeeded  in  gaining  every  point 
on  which  he  insisted.  It  was  said  that  “ a mere  hint  of  j>ro- 


EXPEDITION  OF  1859. 


307 


to  send  the  treaties  to  Europe  and  America  to  be  sanctioned 
and  ratified  by  Western  governments ; after  which,  they  were 
to  be  formally  ratified  by  the  Emperor  at  Pekin. 

Early  in  the  summer  of  1859  the  representatives  of  “the 
four  treaty  powers,”  England,  France,  the  United  States,  and 


ceeding  to  Pekin  was  sufficient  to  take  the  most  doubtful 
clauses  through  the  perils  of  diplomacy.” 

Peace  was  now  restored,  a better  understanding  between 
China  and  Western  powers  established,  and  new  and  impor- 
tant advantages  secured  to  traders  and  missionaries.  All  that 
remained  to  be  done  in  closing  up  these  negotiations  was 


UWASHANA,  SECOND  IMPERIAL  COMMISSIONER. 


308 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


Russia,  appeared  at  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho  with  the  treaties, 
to  obtain  their  final  ratification.  The  speedy  consummation 
of  this  event  was  confidently  anticipated  by  foreigners  and  na- 
tives generally,  though  it  had  been  rumored  for  months  that 
the  mouth  of  the  Peiho  had  been  filled  with  obstructions  to 
prevent  the  entrance  of  foreign  gun-boats,  and  that  extensive 
warlike  preparations  had  been  made  to  resist  and  exclude  the 
foreign  embassadors.  I believe  the  Chinese  did  not  contem- 
plate breaking  faith  with  foreign  nations,  but  they  found  it 
very  difficult  to  accept  the  position  in  which  they  found  them- 
selves, and  to  submit  with  a good  grace  to  the  terms  of  a treaty 
which  seemed  to  them  so  humiliating,  and  which  had  been  ex- 
acted from  them  the  previous  year  with  such  a dictatorial  air 
and  haughty  assumption  of  superiority.  They  felt  that  they 
could  not  surrender  to  “ barbarians  ” that  pre-eminence  which, 
from  time  immemorial,  they  had  claimed  and  exercised.  The 
Chinese  commissioners,  with  earnest  professions  of  cordiality, 
and  a forced  assumption  of  dignity  and  authority,  informed 
the  foreign  plenipotentiaries  that  they  were  expected  at  Pekin, 
but  that  the  channel  of  the  Peiho  was  effectually  closed,  and 
that  they  must  proceed  to  the  capital  by  another  route.  They 
assured  them  that  the  Chinese  government  intended  to  treat 
the  foreign  ministers  with  all  due  consideration  and  respect, 
but  that  they  regarded  them  as  their  guests,  and  would  ex- 
pect them  to  leave  their  gun-boats  at  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
and,  with  a limited  escort,  put  themselves  under  the  care 
and  guidance  of  the  servants  of  the  Emperor,  who  would 
provide  them  with  suitable  conveyances  and  necessary  sup- 
plies. This  proposition  no  doubt  seemed  to  the  Chinese  nat- 
ural and  reasonable,  while  the  English  saw  in  it  a persistent 
determination  to  treat  them  as  inferiors,  and  to  subject  them 
to  petty  annoyances,  and  some  supposed  that  the  Chinese 
wished  to  draw  the  foreign  embassadors  into  a position  where 
they  would  be  entirely  in  their  power,  by  separating  them 
from  their  ships  and  their  soldiers.  Under  these  circumstan- 
ces, the  English  and  French  expressed  their  fixed  determina- 


REPULSE  OF  THE  ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH.  309 

tion  to  go  to  Pekin  by  the  usual  and  direct  route,  through  the 
Peiho,  and  to  take  with  them  as  large  a company  of  foreign 
soldiers  as  they  wished.  Here  was  another  antagonism  as 
clearly  defined  as  that  of  the  previous  year.  Neither  party 
would  recede  from  its  position,  and  an  appeal  was  again  made 
to  arms. 

The  Chinese  had  made  every  possible  preparation  for  this 
emergency  in  case  it  should  arise,  and  succeeded  in  offering 
such  a determined  and  effective  resistance  as  was  not  expect- 
ed from  them.  After  several  gun-boats  were  disabled  by  the 
fire  from  the  forts,  and  a storming-party  had  utterly  failed  in 
effecting  its  object,  the  allied  forces  having  suffered  severe 
losses  of  men  and  vessels,  were  obliged  to  withdraw  and  give 
up  the  attack  as  a complete  failure.  While  the  English  and 
French  quietly  retired,  the  Ministers  of  the  United  States  and 
Russia,  who  had  not  taken  part  in  this  encounter,  went  to 
Pekin,  as  desired  by  the  Chinese  government,  and  exchanged 
their  treaties. 

Quiet  was  again  restored,  at  least  for  a season.  The 
“ Great  Middle  Kingdom  ” had  gained  a decided  victory,  and 
the  Chinese  were  jubilant — in  some  places  almost  insolent. 
But  all  felt  that  this  quiet  was  delusive.  The  political  sky 
was  not  cleared,  and  another  more  terrible  storm  was  appre- 
hended. The  Empire  was  for  a time  freed  from  the  presence 
of  a foreign  foe,  but  in  the  distance  was  heard  the  roar  of  the 
English  Lion,  and  seen  the  glittering  of  French  bayonets. 

Early  in  the  summer  of  I860  the  expected  allied  army 
made  its  appearance  off  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho.  It  was  now 
determined  to  carry  the  war  to  the  very  gates  of  Pekin,  and 
make  the  Chinese  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  Western 
nations.  The  invading  army  was  composed  of  the  best 
troops,  both  cavalry  and  infantry,  which  England  and  France 
could  furnish,  numbering  in  all  about  twenty  thousand  men. 
No  expense  had  been  spared.  The  expedition  was  too  im- 
portant to  risk  the  chance  of  a failure.  The  Chinese  govern- 
ment opposed  the  invading  force  by  an  immense  army,  led 


310 


CHINA  ANJD  THE  CHINESE. 


by  their  famous  general  Seng-ko-ling-sing.  They  gave  unex- 
pected evidence  of  resolution  and  courage ; but  as  they  had 
been  two  proud  to  learn  the  art  of  war  from  foreigners,  all 
their  efforts  to  guard  the  capital  of  the  “ Son  of  Heaven  ” 
from  being  desecrated  by  barbarians  proved  fruitless.  As 
the  conquerors  approached  Pekin,  the  Emperor  fled  in  great 
haste  into  Tartary.  The  Western  plenipotentiaries,  with 
foreign  guns  trained  upon  the  walls  of  the  Chinese  capital, 
exacted  the  ratification  of  their  treaties,  with  additional 
clauses  and  conditions  still  more  galling  to  the  Chinese,  every 
new  act  of  resistance  on  their  part  being  made  the  occasion 
of  demanding  new  privileges  and  advantages. 

These  treaties  opened -for  foreign  residence  and  trade  two 
new  ports  on  the  island  of  Formosa,  Swatow  on  the  south 
coast  of  China,  Cheefoo  and  Tien-tsin  in  the  north,  one  city 
in  Manchuria,  and  three  on  the  great  river  Yiang-ts.  It  con- 
ceded the  right  to  travel  with  passports  throughout  the  eight- 
een provinces,  and  contained  also  a special  clause  giving  pro- 
tection to  foreigners  and  natives  in  the  propagation  and  adop- 
tioff  of  the  Christian  religion.  The  further  condition  was 
imposed  that  the  Chinese  should  pay  the  expenses  of  the  war. 

The  moral  effect  of  this  war  was  very  great.  The  superi- 
ority of  Western  nations,  at  least  in  this  one  art,  could  no 
longer  be  questioned,  and  a much  more  favorable  impression 
was  made  by  the  moderation,  magnanimity,  and  clemency  of 
the  victors  than  by  their  military  power. 

As  the  invading  army  marched  inland  from  the  coast,  the 
people,  expecting  nothing  from  them  but  wholesale  slaughter 
and  plunder,  fled  before  them  in  consternation,  and  many 
committed  suicide.  It  was  soon  found,  however,  that  the 
English  treated  those  not  in  arms  with  kindness,  and  paid  a 
fair  price  for  every  thing  they  wished.  The  country  people 
brought  in  all  kinds  of  provisions,  and  I have  been  told  by  an 
English  oflicer  that. he  had  never  known  a better  market  than 
that  which  followed  them  in  all  their  course  from  the  coast  to 
Pekin.  They  even  bought  pack-mules  and  horses  at  a very 


so  ajvtm  ?"t  nn  njrso'.a 


PROGRESS  UNDER  THE  LAST  TREATY.  313 

low  price.  The  French,  adopting  a less  kindly  policy,  were 
obliged,  as  a natural  and  merited  result,  to  go  to  the  English 
market  to  buy  their  provisions,  and  to  be  subject  to  the  rules 
and  regulations  which  they  had  imposed.  It  is  but  just  to 
add,  that  the  character  of  the  French  army  wTas  further  tar- 
nished by  the  unjustifiable  act  of  burning  a valuable  library 
connected  with  the  Emperor’s  summer  palace. 

Within  the  short  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  ratifica- 
tion of  the  last  treaties  in  1860,  an  important  trade  has  sprung 
up  in  all  these  newly-opened  ports.  Ideas  of  progress  and 
change  are  constantly  being  taught  to  millions  of  the  interior 
provinces  by  more  than  a score  of  large  steamers  plying  be- 
tween the  coast  and  the  city  of  Han-Kow,  six  hundred  miles 
in  the  interior — a place  containing  near  2,000,000  of  inhabit- 
ants. 

Shanghai,  one  of  the  five,  open  ports,  has  grown  from  a 
small  settlement  to  a place  numbering  five  thousand  foreign 
residents,  and  the  shipping  anchored  here  at  one  time  often 
contains  near  five  thousand  traders  and  sailors.  Protestant 
missionaries  have  entered  nearly  all  the  new  ports,  and  in 
most  of  them  may  be  found  already  a ’company  of  native 
Christians  and  organized  native  churches. 

O 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


8U 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

MISSIONARY  LIFE  IN  CHINA. 

A Sea-voyage  a good  Preparation  for  Missionary  Life. — First  Impressions 
on  Shore. — Novelty  succeeded  by  Monotony. — Longing  for  Home. — 
Missionary  Houses,  Mode  of  Living,  Salaries,  Servants,  etc.— Import- 
ance of  Female  Laborers. — Married  and  Unmarried  Missionaries. — The 
Study  of  the  Language  with  a Native  Teacher. — A Missionary  may  be 
Useful  from  the  very  first. — House-keeping,  and  a Missionary’s  Home  as 
an  important  Centre  of  Influence. — Chapels  and  Chapel-preaching. — 
Itinerations  in  the  Interior. — The  great  Difficulty  of  communicating 
Christian  Truth  in  a Heathen  Language. — Distribution  of  Tracts,  and 
the  Manner  in  which  they  are  received. — The  natural  Effect  of  a correct 
Apprehension  of  the  true  Character  of  the  Gospel. 

A sea-voyage  is  in  many  respects  a good  preparation  for 
the  life-work  of  a missionary.  Separated  both  from  his  fa- 
ther-land and  the  one  to  which  he  is  looking  forward  for  a 
home,  a wanderer  on  the  wide  waste  of  waters,  it  is  a time  for 
solemn  thought,  to  examine  one’s  motives,  to  estimate  aright 
the  character  and  value  of  life  and  its  pursuits,  and  to  gather 
strength  and  courage  for  future  duty.  Cut  off  from  all  inter- 
course with  the  busy  world  at  large,  he  finds  himself  in  a lit- 
tle world  having  a character  peculiar  to  itself,  where  he  is 
brought  into  the  closest  contact  with  his  fellows,  studies  hu- 
man nature  in  new  aspects,  and  finds  abundant  occasion  for 
the  exercise  and  cultivation  of  patience,  forbearance,  sympa- 
thy, and  self-control.  Here  the  strongest  attachments  are 
formed,  and  the  most  decided  antagonisms  developed,  not 
only  between  ship-masters  and  passengers,  but  between  the 
passengers  themselves.  The  voyage  is  looked  back  to  by 
some  as  the  most  delightful  episode  of  their  lives,  and  by 
others  as  a most  vexatious  and  unendurable  imprisonment. 


A missionary’s  first  impressions. 


315 


These  experiences  refer  to  the  long  voyages  in  sailing-ships, 
where  passengers  are  necessarily  brought  into  the  closest  re- 
lations with  each  other.  In  the  shorter  voyages  of  ocean 
steamers,  which  carry  a large  number  of  travellers,  and  have 
extensive  accommodations,  passengers  can  choose  their  own 
associates  according  to  their  natural  affinities. 

The  monotony  and  privations  of  life  on  ship-board  are  to 
many  persons  almost  compensated  by  the  pleasure  of  going 
ashore  in  a foreign  land.  After  being  tossed  for  months  on 
the  restless  ocean,  it  is  a delight  to  tread  terra  Jirma  any- 
where, especially  in  jflaces  where  every  object  is  novel,  or 
strange,  or  picturesque.  To  a missionary,  the  first  introduc- 
tion to  the  land  of  his  choice  has  new  elements  of  delight, 
lie  does  not  come  on  shore  simply  to  enjoy  the  novelty  of  the 
scene,  to  satisfy  his  curiosity,  or  gather  interesting  or  useful 
information.  This  is  to  be  his  future  home.  Hither  his  af- 
fections have  flown,  and  clung  by  anticipation.  -The  new  race 
of  men  which  he  looks  upon  for  the  first  time  with  a peculiar 
and  absorbing  interest,  he  has  already  learned  to  love.  He 
has  come  to  labor  with  and  for  them,  and  for  Christ. 

. If  his  destination  is  a mission-station  already  established, 
he  has  the  additional  pleasure  of  being  met  and  welcomed  by 
his  colaborers ; and  the  happiness  of  this  meeting  is  heightened 
by  its  being  .so  thoroughly  reciprocal.  The  arrival  of  new  re- 
cruits is  hailed  by  missionaries  on  the  ground  as  an  evidence 
• of  remembrance  and  sympathy  at  home,  and  as  a direct  an- 
swer to  the  oft-repeated  prayer  that  God  would  send  forth 
laborers  into  his  harvest.  The  glow  of  health  mantling  their 
cheeks,  and  the  fire  of  zeal  beaming  in  their  eyes,  add  new 
strength  and  hope  to  those  who  have  been  bearing  the  burden 
and  heat  of  the  day.  The  new-comers  are  perhaps  entire 
strangers,  and  bring  no  news  of  individual  homes  and  fire- 
sides ; but  they  can  speak  of  a common  country,  of  revered 
instructors  and  halls  of  study,  of  the  loved  church  of  their 
choice,  and  of  the  work  to  which  they  have  given  their  lives 
in  obedience  to  the  call  of  the  Master. 


316 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


But  the  novelty  of  the  missionary’s  position  soon  passes 
away,  and  he  settles  down  to  the  monotony,  toil,  and  trials  of 
every-day  duties.  He  feels  the  want  of  home  society  and 
recreations,  and  the  stimulus  and  excitement  of  coming  into 
daily  contact  with  the  active  busy  world.  He  may  discover 
that  his  associates  are  without  those  elements  of  congeniality 
which  form  the  basis  of  warm  and  confiding  intimacies  and 
attachments.  The  language  is  perhaps  found  very  difficult, 
and  intercourse  with  the  natives  vexatious  and  annoying. 
Under  these  circumstances,  nothing  but  a strong  motive  can 
keep  the  mind  fixed  to  its  purpose.  Merchants  may  be  will- 
ing to  expatriate  themselves  for  a few  years,  from  the  power- 
ful motive  of  acquiring  wealth  ; solacing  themselves  for  a time 
by  the  excitement  of  their  active  employments,  the  society  of 
those  similarly  situated  with  themselves,  and  the  hope  of  soon 
returning  to  their  native  land  to  enjoy  a life  of  ease  and  afflu- 
ence. The  only  motives  which  can  make  a missionary  con- 
tented and  useful  are  earnest  love  for  his  work,  and  sympathy 
with  those  for  whom  he  labors.  Individuals  may,  and  I be- 
lieve some  do,  leave  home  to  engage  in  this  work  without  a 
just  conception  of  its  true  character,  and  without  counting 
the  cost — influenced  in  part,  though  unconsciously,  by  a love 
of  adventure,  or  romantic  interest,  or  temporary  enthusiasm. 
Such  persons  are  apt  very  soon  to  become  disappointed  and 
disheartened,  and  to  work  simply  from  a sense  of  duty.  Some 
have  found  that  they  had  made  a mistake  before  even  the 
outward  voyage  was  over.  Whenever  it  comes  to  this,  that 
a man  performs  his  work  as  a drudgery,  regards  his  having 
become  a missionary  with  regret,  labors  with  a kind  of  half- 
heartedness, makes  very  little  progress  in  gaining  a knowl- 
edge of  the  language  or  influence  with  the  people,  and  pines 
for  home,  the  sooner  he  goes  home  the  better : the  more  pity 
he  ever  came  away. 

I am  glad  to  say  that,  as  far  as  my  experience  and  obser- 
vation go,  such  cases  have  been  very  few  in  China.  Mission- 
aries generally  acquire  a growing  delight  in  the  work,  even  in 


missionaries’  mode  of  living. 


31/ 


the  most  difficult,  discouraging,  and  unhealthy  fields ; and  are 
rather  prone  to  stay  too  long,  to  the  detriment  of  their  health 
and  permanent  usefulness,  requiring  to  be  urged,  and  some- 
times almost  forced  away  by  their  brethren. 

Missionaries  generally  live  at  first  in  native  houses,  altered 
and  fitted  up  in  some  degree  in  accordance  with  our  ideas  of 
comfort  and  convenience — putting  in  a few  glass  windows  in 
place  of  the  paper  ones,  and  substituting  boards  for  the  floor- 
ing of  a few  rooms  in  the  place  of  cement  or  brick.  As  soon 
as  practicable,  permanent  houses  are  built  somewhat  after  our 
own  style  of  architecture. 

Our  mode  of  living  is  similar  to  that  at  home.  China  fur- 
nishes nearly  every  article  of  food  which  we  find  in  our  own 
country.  The  native  mode  of  preparing  and  cooking  it  is, 
however,  very  different  from  ours,  and,  in  many  respects,  not 
suited  to  our  tastes  and  habits.  Most  missionary  families 
have  an  American  cooking-stove,  and  servants  are  taught  to 
prepare  food  according  to  our  way,  so  that  our  tables  and. 
meals  correspond  very  nearly  to  what  we  have  been  accustom- 
ed to  at  home. 

A great  deal  is  said  in  some  quarters  about  the  luxurious 
manner  in  which  missionaries  live  in  the  East,  occupying 
“palatial  dwellings,  employing  a large  number  of  servants, 
and  riding  on  the  shoulders  of  the  men  to  whom  they  are  sent 
to  preach  the  Gospel.” 

Such  remarks  are  so  common  that  a reference  to  them 
needs  no  apology. 

In  China  our  usual  allowance  for  buildings  is  from  twelve 
hundred  to  two  thousand  dollars  for  a house.  This  will  fur- 
nish us  with  a plain  dwelling,  inferior  in  style  and  accommo- 
dations to  most  country  parsonages  at  home. 

As  for  servants,  there  is  no  caste,  as  in  India,  almost  ne- 
cessitating the  employment  of  from  six  to  ten  different  persons 
in  a family,  but  we  generally  think  it  desirable  to  employ 
about  three,  though  some  have  but  two,  and  some  have  man- 
aged to  get  along  with  one.  It  should  be  understood  that 


318 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


our  circumstances  are  very  different  from  those  of  home.  In- 
stead of  having  water  brought  to  the  kitchen  by  pipes,  or  sup- 
plied by  a well  and  pump  conveniently  situated,  our  servants 
are  often  required  to  bring  water  for  washing  and  cooking, 
etc.,  a distance  varying  from  several  rods  to  a quarter  of  a 
mile  or  more.  Instead  of  having  the  convenience  of  the  mar- 
ket-wagon calling  at  the  door  every  day,  the  cook  is  often 
obliged  to  walk  one  or  two  miles  to  buy  his  meat,  vegetables, 
and  groceries.  In  Chinese  cities  we  have  no  arrangements 
for  receiving  our  letters  at  every  corner,  and  delivering  them 
in  any  place  where  we  may  wish  to  send  them ; and  if  we  have 
communications  to  send  to  other  parts  of  the  city  or  country, 
we  must  either  waste  our  time  in  taking  them  ourselves,  or 
send  a special  messenger.  In  going  from  place  to  place,  we 
would  be  glad  to  make  use  of  street  cars  if  we  had  them,  but 
we  must  forego  this  luxury.  We  would  not  feel  that  we 
could  afford  to  hire  a carriage,  even  if  there  were  roads  and  car- 
riages. We  generally  prefer  to  walk  when  we  are  not  too 
tired  or  ill  to  do  so  ; but  when  ladies  or  gentlemen  are  obliged 
to  use  a conveyance  where  boats  are  not  to  be  had,  they  adopt 
the  same  mode  of  travelling  that  natives  do,  rich  and  poor, 
and  engage  a sedan  at  the  rate  of  about  twenty  cents  per 
hour,  or  a dollar  a day ; and  the  bearers  are  very  glad  to  get 
the  employment.  Being  accustomed  to  take  a great  deal  of 
out-door  exercise,  and  requiring  it,  I have  made  comparative- 
ly little  use  of  sedans,  but  would  regard  it  as  exceedingly  un- 
wise and  injurious  for  all  missionaries  to  follow  my  example. 

The  salaries  of  the  missionaries  of  the  various  societies  of 
the  United  States  generally  range  from  eight  to  twelve  hun- 
dred dollars  a year.  This  sum  is  not  fixed  as  pay,  or  as  an 
equivalent  for  their  services,  but  as  a mere  competency  for 
their  support,  while  they  give  their  labors  and  themselves  to 
the  work  which  they  have  undertaken.  This  salary  for  a mis- 
sionary and  his  wife  is  much  lower  than  many,  if  not  most, 
young  unmarried  clerks  receive  the  first  year  of  their  coming 
out  to  China. 


WHAT  IS  TRUE  ECONOMY? 


319 


But  it  is  asked,  Could  not  the  missionaries  economize  still 
further,  and  live  on  a considerably  lower  salary  ? This  would 
no  doubt  be  possible,  but  the  question  is,  Would  it  be  desira- 
ble ? Would  it  promote  the  object  for  which  we  go  to  Chi- 
na ? There  are  some  missionaries  Avho  advocate  living  on  re- 
duced salaries,  and  we  might  barely  subsist,  for  a time  at  least, 
on  a still  smaller  sum  than  even  they  would  adopt.  Many 
artisans  and  day  laborers  at  home  live  and  thrive  and  support 
their  families  on  two  or  three  hundred  dollars  a year ; and  in 
China  living  is  somewhat  cheaper,  and  we  might  perhaps  ex- 
ist on  even  less.  In  doing  so,  however,  we  would  hardly  rep- 
resent those  from  whom  we  are  sent,  and  I fear  that  the  re- 
sult would  prove  that  we  had  been  exercising  a very  poor 
economy. 

If  Christians  at  home  were  really  unable  to  furnish  the 
present  stipend,  I trust  that  the  men  and  women  who  are  now 
laboring  for  Christ  in  China  would,  rather  than  abandon  His 
cause,  be  willing  to  remain  at  their  posts,  receiving  only  the 
minimum  necessary  for  a bare  subsistence.  But  there  is,  in 
fact,  no  such  necessity.  Few  will  deny  that  the  Church  is 
giving  but  a small  part  of  what  she  might  easily  give,  and 
ought  to  give,  and  it  would  be  a positive  advantage  for  her  to 
give. 

Or  further,  if  living  with  a stricter  economy,  and  on  a 
smaller  salary,  would  increase  our  influence  among  the  people 
and  promote  our  ultimate  usefulness,  we  certainly  ought  to  do 
it.  But  I believe  that,  from  such  a«course,  no  good  results 
would  follow,  but  rather  harm.  The  Chinese  are  accustomed 
to  associate  poverty  with  inefficiency  ; to  see  persons  who  are 
not  pinched  with  want  live  generously ; and  they  intuitively 
judge  of  a man’s  character  and  social  position,  in  a great 
measure,  by  his  dress,  manners,  and  style  of  living.  So  far  are 
intelligent  and  earnest  native  Christians,  even  those  who  are 
themselves  very  poor,  from  washing  us  to  adopt  their  style  of 
living,  that  I have  known  them  to  be  so  much  exercised  by 
the  shabby  appearance  and  ungenteel  manners  and  mode  of 


320 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


life  of  some  foreign  teachers,  as  to  insist  upon  the  importance  of 
their  dressing  better,  and  in  every  way  living  more  respecta- 
bly, in  order  to  increase  their  influence  and  usefulness. 

A missionary  might  try  to  do  his  own  marketing,  and  his 
wife  might  spend  the  most  of  her  time  in  the  kitchen,  and 
thus  save  the  expense  of  one  servant,  and  perhaps  two  ; but, 
after  many  years  of  expensive  preparation  for  their  great 
work,  it  seems  but  a miserable  economy  to  spend  their  ener- 
gies and  a considerable  portion  of  each  day’s  time  in  doing 
that  which  a Chinaman  can  be  employed  to  do  for  five  dollars 
a month,  neglecting  the  special  work  to  which  Christ  has 
called  them,  to  say  nothing  of  producing  dissatisfaction  and 
complaints  from  servants,  unpleasant  remarks  among  neigh- 
bors, and  acquiring  the  reputation,  which  is  not  at  all  enviable 
or  desirable,  of  being  penurious  and  narrow-minded.  In  Chi- 
na labor  is  cheap,  and  is  divided  among  different  kinds  of 
servants.  It  is  a very  difficult  matter  to  change  the  customs 
and  views  of  as  numerous  and  intelligent  a people  as  the  Chi- 
nese, and  it  is  much  the  best  way  to  conform  to  these  customs 
in  matters  which  are  indifferent  and  unimportant. 

I learned  a short  time  since  that  a church  in  our  connec- 
tion was  greatly  shocked  by  the  statement  of  a missionary 
from  India,  who  had  spent  twenty-eight  years  in  earnest  and 
efficient  labor,  and  literally  worn  himself  out  in  the  service  of 
the  Church,  respecting  the  number  of  servants  they  employed 
there,  and,  in  consequence,  almost  determined  never  to  contrib- 
ute any  thing. more  tcp  the  cause  of  missions.  I have  little 
doubt  that  an  effort  on  the  part  of  this  missionary  to  do  with 
a less  number  of  servants  would  have  resulted  in  inconven- 
iences, annoyances,  and  interruptions,  which  would  have  gone 
far  toward  neutralizing  his  influence  and  destroying  his  use- 
fulness. I have  noticed,  as  a matter  of  fact,  which  individuals 
may  account  for  as  they  choose,  that  these  objections  and  in- 
sinuations are  generally  made  by  those  who  do  or  give  little 
or  nothing  for  the  cause  of  foreign  missions  themselves. 

The  same  sensitiveness  is  manifested  in  the  views  and  feel- 


UNREASONABLE  AND  ROMANTIC  IDEAS. 


321 


ings  which  some  professed  Christians  entertain  with  reference 
to  missionaries  returning  home  to  recruit  their  health,  thus 
“wasting  so  much  time  and  so  much  money.”  I have  also 
heard  the  return  of  missionaries  deprecated  on  account  of  the 
“•unfavorable  effect  it  had  on  the  Church  at  home.”  I have 
known  of  an  individual’s  writing  to  a missionary  friend  abroad, 
who  was  in  a very  precarious  state  of  health,  that  if  he  had 
given  himself  to  the  work  of  being  a missionary  he  would  die 
before  he  would  come  home.  These  individual  opinions 
would  not  be  worth  noticing,  were  there  not  reason  to  believe 
that  those  who  entertain  them  are  representatives  of  a class. 
Now  I trust  the  missionaries  are  willing  to  die,  if  need  be,  for 
the  cause  of  Christ,  and  for  the  heathen;  but  they  have  no 
disposition  to  sacrifice  life  and  the  hope  of  future  usefulness 
out  of  regard  to  views  and  theories  of  professing  Christians,  so 
impracticable,  unreasonable,  and  romantic  as  these.  It  might 
be  well  for  those  who  entertain  such  exalted  ideas  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  missionary  work,  and  the  standard  of  Christian 
consecration,  to  consider  whether,  as  the  command  to  evan- 
gelize the  nations  is  given  to  the  whole  Church,  and  rests 
equally  upon  every  individual  member  of  it,  they  ought  not 
to  become  missionaries  themselves,  and  to  put  in  practice 
their  own  principles.  Or  if,  for  any  reason,  they  choose  to  re- 
main at  home,  they  might  even  here  have  the  fullest  opportu- 
nity of  practicing  at  least  one  species  of  the  self-denial  which 
they  Avould  recommend  to  missionaries,  namely,  that  of  econ- 
omy ; and  might  adopt  at  once  the  minimum  necessary  to  keep 
soul  and  body  together ; vigorous  health  and  ability  to  labor 
not  being  so  absolutely  indispensable  here  as  for  missionaries 
abroad. 

With  regard  to  this  whole  matter  of  salaries  and  mode  of 
living,  I do  not  hesitate  to  state  it  as  my  opinion,  that  in  Chi- 
na American  missionaries  at  least,  have  erred  on  the  side  of  a 
false  and  injurious  economy,  which  has  interfered,  in  some 
cases,  greatly  with  their  health,  influence,  and  usefulness.  We 
have  no  reason  to  complain,  because  we  ourselves  generally 

0 2 


322 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


fix  the  amount  of  our  salaries.  What  I mean  is,  that  it  is  the 
natural  and  general  tendency  of  missionaries  to  stint  them- 
selves in  order  to  have  more  funds  to  apply  to  other  purposes. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  well  to  speak  briefly  of  the 
opportunity  for  missionary  labor  of  Christian  ladies.  It  is#a 
prevalent  opinion  that  the  wives  of  missionaries  are  necessa- 
rily so  much  taken  up  with  domestic  duties  that  it  is  not 
practicable  for  them  to  accomplish  much  in  direct  efforts  for 
the  evangelization  of  the  heathen,  even  for  those  of  their 
own  sex.  I believe  that  the  fact  that  so  little  is  expected  of 
them  has  had  the  effect,  in  many  cases,  of  discouraging  them 
from  attempting  and  accomplishing  much  that  they  might  and 
would  gladly  have  done.  In  instructing  the  women  of  China, 
there  is  an  important  sphere  of  labor  which  especially  belongs 
to  Christian  ladies ; and  experience  has  shown  that,  even  with 
a large  family  to  care  for,  they  may,  without  neglecting  any 
domestic  duties  (making  use  of  necessary  assistance  from 
servants),  accomplish  a great  deal  in  visiting  native  women  at 
their  homes,  superintending  schools  and  female  assistants, 
gathering  women  into  industrial  and  Bible  classes,  and  writ- 
ing books  for  the  use  of  schools,  inquirers,  and  church  mem- 
bers or  others.  While  the  missionary’s  wife  should  perhaps 
be  left  entirely  free  to  attempt  direct  missionary  work  or  not, 
and  to  follow  her  own  tastes  and  inclinations,  she  should  at 
least  be  heartily  encouraged  to  share  in  the  privileges  of  mis- 
sionary labor  whenever  she  has  the  ability  and  disposition  £o 
do  so.  Personal  interest  and  employment,  and  bringing  igno- 
rant idolaters  to  Christ,  is  at  once  the  best  antidote  to  home- 
sickness, and  the  purest  source  of  happiness. 

While  there  is  an  important  work  for  Christian  women  to 
do  in  the  East,  it  is  an  interesting  and  gratifying  fact  that  a 
large  number  of  unmarried  ladies  are  offering  their  services 
to  our  Boards.  May  Ave  not  recognize  in  this  fact  a special 
providence,  and  the  necessity  of  so  arranging  and  adjusting 
our  plan  of  operations  as  to  a\rail  ourselves  of  this  important 
agency  Avhich  God  is  raising  up  for  the  Church? 


THE  STUDY  OF  THE  LANGUAGE. 


323 


The  practical  question  often  arises  as  to  the  comparative 
advantages  of  married  and  unmarried  missionaries.  While 
it  would  be  a great  misfortune,  as  I conceive,  for  a mission  to 
be  composed  wholly  of  unmarried  men,  I think  it  is  a mistake 
hardly  less  serious  to  suppose  that  an  unmarried  man  can  not 
be  a most  useful  missionary.  Both  classes  of  laborers  are 
needed.  Persons  without  family  ties  have  advantages  in 
itinerating  and  moving  from  place  to  place  which  are  peculiar 
to  their  condition ; at  the  same  time,  the  influence  of  Chris- 
tian women  on  the  missionary  body  itself  is  too  important  to 
be  foregone,  to  say  nothing  of  the  influence  of  Christian  fam- 
ilies upon  the  heathen,  and  the  labors  which  ladies  may  per- 
form among  those  of  their  own  sex.  It  is  sometimes  stated 
by  those  who  recommend  young  men  to  go  out  unmarried 
that  wives  are  apt  to  lose  their  health,  and  to  bring  their  hus- 
bands home  with  them.  But  it  is  equally  true  that  they  often 
keep  them  longer  in  the  field,  and  add  greatly  to  their  effi- 
ciency while  there.* 

But  to  return  to  the  employments  of  the  newdy -arrived 
missionary.  Whatever  special  work  he  may  choose  for  him- 
self in  a later  period  of  his  life,  the  preparation  for  all  kinds 
of  work  is  the  thorough  acquisition  of  the  language.  This 
task  must  be  undertaken  resolutely,  systematically,  laboriously, 
and  persistently.  When  thus  prosecuted,  few  persons  of  or- 
dinary ability  will  fail  to  master,  at  least,  the  spoken  language, 
so  as  to  be  able  to  communicate  freely  with  the  people  and 
preach  to  them  in  their  “ own  tongue  the  wonderful  works  of 
God.”  A Chinese  literary  man  is  employed  at  once  as  a per- 
sonal teacher,  generally  called  a sien-sang.  He  becomes  the 
constant  attendant  and  companion  of  the  missionary ; and  out 
of  this  daily  and  intimate  intercourse  often  grows  a mutual 
attachment  strong  and  lasting.  After  the  knowledge  of  the 

* For  a more  complete  view  of  woman’s  work  in  China,  and  fuller  in- 
formation respecting  missionary  life  in  general,  the  reader  is  referred  to  a 
recent  work,  entitled  “Our  Life  in  China,”  written  by  Mrs.  Nevius.  and 
published  by  Carter  and  Brothers,  New  York. 


324: 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


spoken  language  is  partially  or  fully  acquired,  the  sien-sang  is 
often  still  retained  as  a scribe,  and  an  assistant  in  further  lit- 
erary studies  and  compositions. 

The  question  is  sometimes  asked,  How  soon  after  his  ar- 
rival in  the  field  may  a missionary  be  really  useful  ? I answer, 
to  a greater  or  less  degree,  from  the  very  first.  He  may  re- 
lieve his  brethren  of  much  secular  work,  and  also  assist  in 
forming  plans  for  the  general  interests  of  the  mission.  In  the 
course  of  a few  months  he  ean  begin  to  communicate  with  his 
teacher,  who  learns  to  catch  his  meaning  before  he  can  be 
understood  by  others ; and  who  may  be  won  to  Christ,  and 
become  a brother  beloved,  and  a true  yoke-fellow  in  the  work 
of  bringing  others  to  Christ. 

Missionaries,  on  their  first  arrival  in  China,  generally  board 
for  a few  months  with  other  families  until  they  have  acquired 
some  knowledge  of  the  language.  In  the  course  of  six 
months  or  a year,  they  ordinarily  commence  housekeeping  by 
themselves.  From  this  time  they  not  only  have  a teacher 
under  their  daily  influence,  but  also  servants,  and  Chinese 
visitors  and  guests,  if  such  are  cordially  encouraged  to  come 
to  the  missionary’s  house.  I regard  one’s  own  family,  inclu- 
ding, of  course,  all  natives  in  any  way  connected  Avith  us,  as 
one  of  the  most  interesting  and  hopeful  spheres  of  mission- 
ary labor,  and  one  which  w'e  are  too  apt  to  neglect.  It  may 
be  said  most  truly,  and  adopted  as  a motto,  that  missionary 
Avork  in  China  properly  begins  in  the  missionary’s  OAvn  home. 
It  is  natural,  perhaps,  to  regard  our  servants  simply  as  serv- 
ants, while  our  chief  interest  is  directed  to  Avork  in  the  study, 
or  to  labors  for  the  masses  of  heathenism  outside  our  doors. 
There  is  often  a disposition  to  undertake  Avork  on  a large 
scale,  rather  than,  in  a small  Avay,  with  those  in  humble  sta- 
tions and  of  comparatively  little  influence.  These  servants 
sent  to  us  in  the  providence  of  God  from  different  quarters 
are  a poAverful  agency  through  Avhom  to  influence  others. 
Brought  Avithin  the  inner  sphere  of  our  domestic  life,  they 
see  us,  and  form  an  estimate  of  our  real  characters  as  others 


HOME  INFLUENCES. 


825 


can  not.  It  is  but  natural  for  them  to  observe  us  very  close- 
ly ; they  are  familiar  with  our  hourly  employments,  and 
judge  of  our  real  objects,  and  aims,  and  motives.  They  are 
closely  questioned  with  reference  to  us  by  neighbors,  by  the 
men  on  the  street  whom  they  meet  with  in  making  their  pur- 
chases, and  by  their  families  and  acquaintances  in  the  neigh- 
borhood where  they  reside.  It  is  but  right  for  us  to  presume, 
or  at  least  hope  that  Christ  has  sent  them  to  us  to  be  educa- 
ted for  Him,  and  prepared  for  usefulness  in  His  vineyard. 

The  careful  selection  of  servants,  and  organizing  them  into 
a well-regulated  household,  is  a matter  of  much  importance, 
though  by  no  means  so  simple  and  easy  as  might  at  first 
be  imagined.  If  we  would  keep  them  long  with  us  and  uo 
them  good,  we  must  show  a kindly  interest  in  and  sympa- 
thy with  them  and  their  families ; and,  while  we  require  of 
them  strict  attention  to  their  business,  we  must  show  a gener- 
ous appreciation  of  their  faithfulness.  In  seeking  their  spir- 
itual welfare,  we  have  the  great  advantage  of  being  able  to 
meet  them  every  day  in  family  worship,  and  give  them  regu- 
lar and  familiar  instructions  in  the  truths  of  God’s  word.  In 
our  own  family  a considerable  portion  of  time  was  always 
given  in  the  morning  to  this  exercise.  Those  who  could  read 
were  required  to  do  so,  and  those  who  could  not  were  taught. 
We  not  only  read  a small  portion  of  Scripture,  but  conversed 
familiarly  about  it,  sang  a hymn  when  the  servants  were  able 
to  j oin  in  it,  and  had  an  examination  every  day  on  the  lesson 
of  the  previous  one.  In  looking  back  upon  my  missionary 
life,  these  morning  exercises  are  among  my  most  pleasant  rec- 
ollections. They  were  generally  as  interesting  to  my  little 
audience  as  they  were  delightful  to  me.  I remember  one  man, 
an  excellent  servant,  and  one  who  remained  with  us  till  we 
left  China,  who  though  he  persistently  declared  his  unwilling- 
ness ever  to  be  a Christian  himself,  still  seemed  to  take  a 
special  pleasure  in  answering  difficult  questions  in  family 
Avorship,  and  in  giving  the  best  synopsis  of  the  lesson  of  the 
previous  day.  I have  occasionally  found  him  with  his  Bible 


326 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


before  him  while  he  was  at  work,  though  he  would  have  pre- 
ferred not  to  have  me  see  his  interest  in  it.  The  seed  thus 
sown,  and  accompanied  by  affectionate  exhortation  and  prayer, 
can  hardly  fail  of  producing  its  appropriate  fruit.  A con- 
siderable proportion  of  the  first  converts,  and  the  first  cate- 
chists and  preachers,  in  most  mission  stations,  are  from  the 
employes  in  mission  families.  I find,  in  going  over  the  list 
of  our  domestics  while  in  China  from  first  to  last,  that  about 
one-half  of  them  were  brought  into  the  Church  while  connec- 
ed  with  us.  I regret  to  say,  however,  that  some  of  these  have 
not  fulfilled  our  expectations  of  them,  having  subsequently 
renounced  Christianity,  or  led  lives  inconsistent  with  it. 

With  a well-regulated  household,  and  sympathizing  and  at- 
tached servants,  some  of  them  Christians  who  love  to  bear 
testimony  for  Christ,  a missionary  has  a great  advantage  in 
receiving  and  interesting  Chinese  visitors,  not  being  forgetful 
of  the  injunction  of  Scripture  to  use  hospitality  in  entertain- 
ing strangers.  In  my  opinion,  every  missionary  residence 
should  have  accommodations  for  receiving  and  entertaining 
Chinese  guests,  and  making  them  feel  at  ease  there.  There 
are  few  places  where  the  Gospel  message  can  be  brought 
home  with  so  much  point  and  power.  However,  the  desira- 
bleness of  giving  prominence  or  not  to  this  particular  mode 
of  reaching  the  people  will  depend  much  on  the  tastes,  dispo- 
sition, and  habits  of  different  missionaries.  It  is  attended 
with  many  practical  difficulties,  but  I believe  that  there  are 
few  modes  of  labor  which  will  be  found  more  encouraging  or 
effective. 

The  first  attempts  at  preaching  outside  of  one’s  family  are 
generally  made  by  the  roadside  or  in  the  chapel,  and  these  ef- 
forts are  often  commenced  satisfactorily  and  intelligibly  in 
less  than  a year.  Every  mission  in  the  open  ports  has  one  or 
more  of  these  chapels.  They  are  simply  convenient  places  for 
meeting,  conversing  with  and  preaching  to  the  people ; situ- 
ated generally  on  or  near  a public  thoroughfare,  and  fitted  up 
with  seats  or  benches,  and  a platform  and  desk  for  the  speak- 


CHAPEL  WORK. 


327 


er.  Sometimes  a sign  or  placard  at  the  door  indicates  the 
character  of  the  building,  and  invites  passers-by  to  come  in. 
Persons  in  the  street  are  often  attracted  by  the  sight  of  the 
foreigner,  who  is  seen  sitting  or  standing  on  the  platform, 
through  the  open  door.  When  a chapel  is  first  opened,  neigh- 
boring residents  and  shop-keepers  enter  in  crowds,  but  their 
curiosity  soon  passes  away,  and  those  whom  we  meet  are  gen- 
erally strangers  from  a neighboring  village  or  from  a distance. 
The  motive  which  brings  them  to  us  in  most  cases  is  mere 
empty  curiosity.  They  wish  to  see  a foreigner  with  their  own 
eyes,  and  observe  his  features,  dress,  and  manners.  Our  audi- 
ences vary  from  one  or  two  to  a hundred  or  more,  according 
to  the  place  and  other  circumstances.  A coolie,  or  burden- 
bearer,  looking  in  at  the  door  and  seeing  convenient  seats  for 
resting,  deposits  his  burden  in  the  corner,  and  perhaps  lights 
his  pipe  and  sits  down  for  a smoke,  and  to  see  what  is  going 
on.  A well-dressed  gentleman  enters  and  reluctantly  takes  his 
seat,  hardly  knowing  whether  or  not  he  is  compromising  his 
dignity  in  stopping  in  such  a place  and  with  such  company. 

The  mode  of  conducting  the  exercises  in  our  chapels  va- 
ries widely,  according  to  the  character  of  the  audience,  and 
the  views  and  habits  of  the  missionary.  Some  prefer  a form- 
al service,  consisting  of  reading  the  Scriptures,  preaching, 
and  prayer.  This  is  practicable  in  places  where  the  missionary 
is  well  known,  and  a considerable  proportion  of  the  audience 
have  had  some  lessons  in  the  proprieties  of  Christian  worship, 
and,  by  their  influence  and  example,  help  to  keep  the  rest 
quiet.  In  most  places,  however,  with  promiscuous,  uninstruct- 
ed, and  ever-changing  audiences,  it  is  almost  useless  to  attempt 
a continuous  discourse  or  formal  service.  The  people  have 
never  been  accustomed  to  remain  quiet  in  any  public  assem- 
blages. At  weddings  and  on  funeral  occasions,  and  in  attend- 
ing theatres,  they  walk  around,  converse  with  their  friends,  or 
make  remarks  about  what  is  going  on,  without  any  restraint 
whatever.  A formal  discourse,  lecture,  or  harangue  is  some- 
thing almost  unheard  of  in  China,  and  which  we  seldom  read 


328 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE, 


of  in  their  books.  Their  sages  and  public  teachers  have  in- 
fluenced the  masses  through  individuals,  and  have  communi- 
cated their  instructions  by  adopting  the  conversational  or  cat- 
echetical method.  The  recorded  teachings  of  Confucius  are 
all  in  this  form.  At  present,  when  the  natives  wish  to  instruct 
or  influence  others,  they  generally  do  it  in  long  conversations 
with  single  persons.  When  a company  meets  together  for 
conference,  their  business  is  conducted  informally,  politeness 
and  deference  for  each  other  being  the  only  parliamentary 
rules  for  deliberative  assemblies  with  which  they  are  ac- 
quainted. 

I have  known  instances  in  which  missionaries  have  attempt- 
ed to  hold  a formal  service,  when,  as  soon  as  their  eyes  were 
closed  in  prayer,  the  people  would  engage  in  conversation, 
making  remarks  about  the  singular  ways  of  the  foreigners,  etc. 
In  some  cases,  after  a short  prayer  the  speaker  opens  his  eyes, 
and  finds  that  his  audience  has  retired,  leaving  him  alone. 

Some  missionaries  adopt  the  method  somewhat  familiar 
to  the  Chinese,  called  kiang  shn — “explain  the  book.”  This 
gives  a kind  of  authority  and  dignity  to  his  teachings,  while 
the  speaker  may  use  great  freedom  in  varying  his  exercise  by 
introducing  illustrations  and  indulging  in  digressions  accord- 
ing to  circumstances. 

I have  always  preferred  making  a wide  distinction  between 
services  for  the  uninstructed  multitude,  and  for  those  who 
know  and  love  God,  and  come  together  to  engage  in  his  wor- 
ship, and  to  be  instructed  out  of  his  word ; and  have  gener- 
ally adopted  the  practice  of  meeting  and  dealing  with  these 
promiscuous  and  fluctuating  audiences  which  come  into  the 
chapel  in  the  same  free  conversational  manner  as  in  my  own 
home,  allowing  the  character  of  the  exercises  to  be  governed 
very  much  by  circumstances.  In  this  way  I have  been  able 
to  get  nearer  to  my  audience,  to  interest  them  more,  and  hold 
them  longer  than  I could  do  otherwise.  When  the  interest 
of  the  audience  is  excited  and  their  attention  arrested,  many 
excellent  opportunities  are  afforded  for  introducing  and  ex- 


THE  CHINESE  AVERSE  TO  CONTROVERSY. 


329 


plaining  the  truths  and  doctrines  of  the  Gospel  at  some  length. 
Our  religious  services  with  the  native  Christians  correspond 
almost  exactly  to  those  in  our  churches  at  home. 

The  occasions  when  scholars  assemble  in  the  cities  of 
China  to  engage  in  the  literary  examinations  often  afford  un- 
usual advantages  for  preaching.  The  streets  are  thronged 
with  intelligent  strangers,  drawn  from  a large  extent  of  terri- 
tory ; and  many  of  them,  not  having  seen  foreigners  before,  are 
disposed  to  seek  an  interview  with  them.  At  such  times  the 
door's  of  the  chapel  are  kept  open  as  much  of  the  time  as  pos- 
sible. These  audiences,  like  those  of  the  less  educated  classes, 
are  generally  respectful,  and  little  disposed  to  raise  objections 
and  discussions.  Our  experience  in  this  respect  is  very  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  missionaries  in  India.  The  Chinese  gen- 
erally assent  to  what  you  say,  and  will  often  answer  with 
more  politeness'  than  sincerity,  “ That  is  in  accordance  with 
doctrine  “ It  is  true  ; ” “ That  is  so  precisely,”  etc.  This 
natural  indisposition  to  controversy  is  due  to  different 
causes.  Some  are  too  proud  to  discuss  such  matters  with 
foreigners ; some  are  too  polite ; and  most  of  them  are  afraid, 
being,  as  a race,  of  a timid  disposition,  comparatively  unedu- 
cated, and  unused  to  the  logical  exercise  of  their  reasoning 
faculties,  and  having  an  intuitive  consciousness  that  the  truth 
is  on  the  other  side.  AYhen  they  are  willing  to  discuss  Chris- 
tian topics,  it  is  generally  from  a real  interest  and  a desire  for 
information,  and  their  questions  and  objections  are  presented 
with  a great  deal  of  candor  and  politeness. 

I was  particularly  pleased  with  the  intelligent  interest  and 
frankness  of  the  scholars  of  Shantung,  who  visited  us  in  large 
numbers  during  the  first  year  of  our  labors  there,  and  with 
whom  I had  many  interesting  discussions.  Some  of  the 
topics  introduced  by  them  were  characteristically  Chinese, 
such  as  the  defense  of  idolatry  in  some  of  its  forms,  of  Con- 
fucianism as  a complete  and  all-sufficient  system  of  truth,  or 
as  a system  altogether  in  harmony  with  Christianity.  Some 
objections  were  urged  to  show  the  inferiority  of  Christianity 


330 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


as  compared  to  Confucianism,  such  as  the  following  : “ Why 
does  Christianity  constantly  appeal  to  motives  resting  upon 
the  doctrine  of  future  rewards  and  punishments,  instead  ot 
taking  the  higher  ground  of  urging  men  to  the  practice  of 
virtue  simply  because  it  is  right,  and  obligatory  ?”  Some  ob- 
jections were  identical  with  those  which  have  long  been  urged 
in  Western  lands,  such  as  the  following:  “Is  it  consistent 
with  the  justice  of  God  to  punish  the  innocent  and  clear  the 
guilty,  as  he  does  in  visiting  the  penalty  of  death  on  the  Sav- 
iour and  letting  the  sinner  go  free?”  “How  can  the  doc- 
trine of  the  unity  of  God  be  reconciled  with  the  existence  of 
three  distinct  persons  in  the  Godhead  ?”  “ How  was  it  pos- 

sible for  Christ  to  be  born  of  a virgin,  and  for  the  human  and 
divine  natures  to  be  united  in  the  person  of  one  man  ?” 

After  we  have  become  familiar  with  the  spoken  language, 
and  with  Chinese  modes  of  thought,  and  have  acquired  some 
experience  in  presenting  to  the  people  Christian  truth,  when 
the  weather  and  our  employments  will  permit,  we  undertake 
preaching  excursions  in  the  country.  This  is  a very  impor- 
tant and  difficult  part  of  missionary  work.  When  we  pass 
through  districts  which  have  never  before  been  visited  by 
foreigners,  we  are  everywhere  followed  by  immense  crowds. 
On  these  excursions  we  generally  go  two  by  two,  with  one  or 
more  native  assistants,  if  we  can  obtain  them,  in  order  to  re- 
lieve and  assist  each  other.  It  is  easy  to  imagine  the  effect 
which  would  be  produced  in  one  of  our  quiet  interior  towns 
or  villages  in  the  United  States  by  the  announcement  that 
two  Chinamen,  evidently  literary  gentlemen,  and  dressed  in 
their  native  costume,  were  about  to  harangue  the  people  in 
the  public  square.  The  same  effect  is  produced  in  China 
when  a boy  in  the  outskirts  of  a town  sees  us  coming  in  the 
distance,  and  after  he  has  satisfied  himself  that  he  may  credit 
his  own  senses,  runs  down  the  street,  shouting  at  the  top  of 
his  voioe,  “ The  red-haired  men  are  coming !”  or  “ The  white 
devils  are  coining  !”  (these  are  the  names  by  which  they  gen- 
erally call  us). 


IDOLATROUS  ASSOCIATIONS  OF  THE  LANGUAGE.  331 


The  whole  town  is  thrown  into  a state  of  excitement. 
Women  forget  the  proprieties  of  social  life,  and  mingle  in 
the  jostling  crowd  to  catch  a sight  of  the  strange  apparition. 
Schools  are  emptied  at  once  of  pupils  and  teacher,  and  bus- 
iness is  suspended  for  a time  in  the  shops.  A few  of  the 
more  staid  and  respectable  citizens  look  on  and  smile  at  the 
excited  multitudes.  We  take  our  stand  in  some  open  area, 
or  on  the  theatrical  stage  in  the  court  of  a temple,  and  are 
soon  surrounded  by  an  immense  crowd ; the  boys  shouting, 
and  the  men  making  more  noise  than  the  boys  in  their  vain 
efforts  to  keep  them  still.  Every  thing  connected  with  us  is 
an  object  of  curiosity;  the  color  of  our  eyes  and  hair,  the 
material  of  which  our  clothes  are  made ; and  those  who  can  get 
near  enough  are  examining  with  their  eyes  and  fingers,  boots, 
coats,  buttons,  shirt-bosoms,  etc.  After  a few  moments,  by 
the  uplifting  of  the  hand  and  the  utterance  of  a few  familiar 
words,  the  audience  is  in  a measure  quieted,  and  all  are  intent 
on  hearing  what  the  unexpected  visitor  has  to  say. 

But  here  we  meet  witli  difficulties  which  it  is  not  easy  for 
persons  at  home  fully  to  appreciate.  How  shall  we  speak  of 
God  and  the  things  of  salvation  in  a language  every  religious 
word  of  which  has  only  heathen  and  idolatrous  ideas  and  as- 
sociations ? A language  is  the  expression  of  the  thoughts 
and  ideas  of  the  people  who  use  it ; and  naturally  conveys  to 
them  only  the  ideas  which  they  have  been  accustomed  to  con- 
nect with  it.  W ould  we  speak  of  God,  we  must  either  use 
the  name  of  some  particular  heathen  deity,  or  a general  term 
applied  to  all  their  objects  of  worship;  and  the  question 
arises  in  their  minds,  Is  he  speaking  of  this,  that,  or  the  oth- 
er of  the  hundreds  of  gods  which  sit  in  our  idol  temples ; or 
does  he  wish  to  introduce  some  strange  nod  from  foreign 
shores  ? Many  of  the  religious  terms  which  we  use  are,  for 
want  of  better  ones,  borrowed  from  the  idolatrous  system  of 
Buddhism ; for  instance,  the  word  heaven , which  presents  to 
their  minds  the  Buddhist  heaven.  So  of  hell,  sin,  merit,  etc. 
We  are  thankful  if  we  can,  by  circumlocution,  explanation,  and 


832 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


illustration,  present  clearly  and  forcibly  one  great  truth,  which 
would  be  conveyed  to  the  mind  of  a child  in  Christian  lands, 
by  one  word  or  sentence.  We  feel  that  we  have  accomplished 
much  if  we  can  leave  behind  us  the  thought  of  the  unity,  or 
the  omnipresence,  or  the  love  of  God,  or  of  salvation  by  a re- 
deemer ; for  these  ideas,  once  lodged  in  the  human  mind,  are 
vital  germs,  which  will  develop  and  grow,  and,  in  process  of 
time,  bring  forth  their  appropriate  fruit. 

Passing  from  town  to  town,  the  same  scene  is  constantly 
repeated,  and  our  voices  grow  weak  and  hoarse,  and  our  whole 
frames  weary.  In  the  south  of  China,  where  we  travel  most- 
ly in  canals,  we  can  take  refuge  for  the  purpose  of  eating  and 
resting  in  our  boats.  But  even  there,  when  wre  have  anchored 
our  boat  in  the  middle  of  the  canal,  men  will  sometimes  wade 
out  to  it,  and  we  will  see  a score  of  eyes  peeping  at  us  through 
the  cracks  and  holes  of  the  mat  covers,  while  a dozen  tongues 
are  busy  descanting  on  Avhat  we  eat,  and  how  we  eat  it ; and 
an  occasional  burst  of  laughter  indicates  how  much  they  are 
surprised  and  amused.  Now  this  is  all  very  annoying,  but  it 
is  the  better  way  to  put  up  with  it  patiently.  In  the  north  of 
China,  where  there  are  no  canals,  and  we  travel  on  horseback, 
we  must  face  the  crowd  almost  from  morning  to  night.  It  is 
Avorse  than  useless  to  claim  the  privilege  of  taking  refuge  in 
your  inn.  The  Chinese  are  not  accustomed  to  shut  their 
doors  on  any  one,  nor  to  allow  others  to  do  so  ; and  they  claim 
that,  if  they  receive  you  kindly  and  treat  you  politely,  they 
have  a right  to  expect  corresponding  treatment  from  you — at 
least,  the  privilege  of  seeing  you;  and  see  you  they  will. 
Using  force  and  barring  the  door  against  the  crowd,  would 
A'ery  likely  result  in  a mob,  the  breaking  down  of  the  doors, 
much  injury  and  loss  to  the  inn-keeper,  and  a very  unfavora- 
ble impression  with  regard  to  the  foreigner. 

On  an  excursion  from  Ningpo  in  1856,  in  a city  about  two 
hundred  miles  in  the  interior,  an  English  missionary  and  my- 
self Avere  folloAved  by  an  immense  and  excited  croAvd  almost 
ready  to  accord  to  us  divine  honors,  and  really  saying  to  us, 


ITINERATIONS  IN  THE  INTERIOR. 


333 


“Your  visit  as  if  the  gods  had  come  down  to  our  insignifi- 
cant city.”  An  officer  sent  us  a polite  invitation  to  visit  his 
yamun.  He  met  us  at  the  door,  and  received  us  with  great 
cordiality.  We  thanked  him  for  his  polite  invitation,  but  told 
him  we  feared  that  the  crowd  which  was  following  us  would 
give  him  so  much  annoyance  and  trouble  that  it  would  be  bet- 
ter for  us  on  his  account  to  deny  ourselves  the  pleasure  of  the 
visit  and  leave  him  at  once.  He  assured  us  that  there  was  no 
danger,  and  urged  us  to  enter,  which  we  did.  He  no  doubt 
knew  more  about  his  people  in  many  respects  than  we  did, 
but  this  was  an  experience  which  was  new  to  him.  He  re- 
mained without  a short  time  to  disperse  the  crowd,  and  to 
charge  his  servant  to  keep  them  from  entering.  In  a few  mo- 
ments, however,  the  people  had  broken  through  two  doors, 
and  we  heard  loud  voices  and  altercations  between  them  and 
the  servant  in  the  adjoining  court.  Seeing  that  his  excel- 
lency was  somewhat  alarmed,  I offered  to  go  out  to  speak  to 
the  intruders.  A few  kind  words  and  gentle  reproofs,  and  a 
good  opportunity  to  look  at  me  satisfied  them,  and  most  of 
them  dispersed  in  a good-humor. 

The  best  and  right  way  is  always  to  attack  a Chinaman  on 
the  side  of  kindness  and  politeness.  No  other  course  will  an- 
swer here.  It  is  useless,  at  least  at  first,  to  tell  them  that  you 
have  no  time  to  talk  to  them,  or  that  you  are  tired.  In  the 
north  of  China  I have,  after  preaching  from  horseback  in  a 
score  of  villages  during  the  day,  spent  an  hour  or  an  hour  and 
a half  in  the  evening  satisfying  the  curiosity  of  the  people  be- 
fore I could  disperse  the  crowd,  and  go  into  the  inn  for  food 
and  rest. 

The  presence  of  these  interested  audiences  affords  the  mis- 
sionary a rare  opportunity,  seldom  enjoyed  in  the  same  place 
afterward,  to  explain  to  the  people  his  real  character  and  ob- 
ject, to  fix  upon  their  minds  some  great  Christian  truth,  and  to 
produce  as  favorable  an  impression  as  possible ; thus  preparing 
the  way  for  the  more  quiet  labors  of  those  who  are  to  follow. 

On  these  itinerations  we  are  able  to  distribute  as  many 


334 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


books  as  we  can  carry  with  us.  The  people  are  almost  wild 
with  excitement ; and  we  are  often  in  danger  of  being  over- 
borne by  them,  and  having  the  books  snatched  from  us.  They 
have  no  idea,  at  least  most  of  them,  of  the  contents  of  the 
books,  and  many  of  those  who  seek  them  can  not  read  intelli- 
gibly ; but  as  books  are  being  given  away  they  must  have  one. 
It  will  be  a memento  of  the  foreigner  and  his  visit;  it  may 
contain  something  very  curious  or  valuable  ; at  least,  it  may 
be  sold  for  waste  paper.  Many  of  these  books  fall  ultimately 
into  the  hands  of  readers,  and  much  Christian  knowledge  is 
no  doubt  imparted  by  them. 

Some  of  the  experiences  detailed  above  are  calculated  at 
first  to  excite  sanguine  hopes  of  great  and  perhaps  speedy  re- 
sults. But  there  are  darker  shades  necessary  to  complete  this 
picture  and  make  it  a truthful  representation  of  missionary 
life.  I have  described  the  first  reception  of  the  missionary  in 
districts  which  have  never  before  been  visited.  The  same 
scenes  are  seldom  if  ever  repeated  in  subsequent  visits.  When 
the  missionary  has  left  town,  and  the  popular  commotion  has 
subsided,  his  character  and  employments  are  calmly  discussed. 
Some  shrewd  scholar  who  knows  something  of  us,  and  has 
perhaps  read  Christian  books,  expresses  his  views  to  ‘the  peo- 
ple in  language  like  the  following : “ It  is  a pity  that  you 
should  have  been  carried  away  by  excitement,  and  treated  this 
foreigner  with  so  much  respect,  and  spoken  of  his  new  and 
dangerous  doctrines  so  flatteringly.  The  religion  which  he 
would  introduce  is  exclusive,  intolerant,  revolutionary.  It 
strikes  at  the  root  of  all  our  cherished  civil  and  social  institu- 
tions. It  would  destroy  every  temple  in  the  empire,  however 
famous  or  costly,  and  abolish  even  the  homage  paid  to  the 
Emperor,  to  Confucius,  and  to  deceased  ancestors.” 

These  conclusions  are  literally  true,  and  it  is  not  difficult  for 
intelligent  Chinese  to  reach  them.  Christianity  is  an  exclu- 
sive religion,  and  it  must  supplant  all  others.  There  must  be 
a conflict  between  truth  and  error  before  the  former  gains  the 
ascendancy.  Wherever  the  Gospel  is  introduced  and  appre- 


INTEREST  FOLLOWED  BY  INDIFFERENCE.  335 

bended  the  saying  of  Christ  is  verified,  that  he  came  not  to 
send  peace  on  earth,  but  a sword.  When  we  visit  a place  the 
second  time,  we  find  that  the  former  excitement  and  interest 
have  been  succeeded  by  suspicion,  alarm,  and  an  almost  stud- 
ied coldness  of  manner  on  the  part  of  the  people.  No  crowds 
follow  us  in  the  streets,  and  but  few  pay  any  attention  to  us. 
Some  who  have  been  impressed  by  the  truth,  and  are  desir- 
ous to  learn  more  of  it,  may  come  to  us  privately,  and  under 
cover  of  darkness,  like  Nicodemus  of  old.  The  earnest  and 
intelligent  sympathy  of  these  affords  some  compensation  for 
the  loss  of  the  synqjathy  of  the  multitude.  Alas  ! like  Nico- 
demus, most  of  them  are  unwilling  to  confess  Christ  openly, 
for  fear  of  the  reproach  and  opposition  of  their  people. 

When  the  missionary  has  become  familiar  with  the  lan- 
guage, and  the  circumstances  and  wants  of  his  particular  field, 
and  has  learned  his  own  personal  adaptations,  he  is  prepared 
to  determine  the  question  of  duty  as  regards  his  special  sphere 
of  labor. 

F rom  the  foregoing,  the  reader  may  gain  a general  idea  of 
the  manner  in  which  the  missionary’s  time  is  spent.  His  of- 
fice is  no  sinecure ; but  he  is  cheered  in  his  work  by  the  con- 
sciousness that  he  is  laboring  for  Christ,  and  the  assurance 
that  the  cause  with  which  he  is  identified  shall  ultimately  tri- 
umph. In  this  heaven-appointed  service,  the  lives  of  some  of 
the  noblest  and  most  honored  sons  of  the  Church  have  already 
been  spent ; and  not  a few  have  fallen  at  their  posts  in  China. 
On  the  populous  plain  of  Ningpo ; on  the  island  of  Kulang- 
su ; in  the  grave-yards  of  Canton,  Hong-kong,  Fuchow,  and 
Shanghai ; and  on  the  rocky  promontory  which  looks  from  the 
northern  boundary  of  China  across  the  sea  to  Manchuria ; be- 
neath the  waters  of  Hang-chow  Bay  and  the  Pechele  Gulf ; 
and  in  other  spots  known  to  loving  survivors,  and  to  the  more 
loving  Saviour,  they  rest  from  their  labors. 


336 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

DIFFERENT  METHODS  AND  AGENCIES  EMPLOYED  IN  MISSION- 
ARY WORK. 

The  great  Mission  of  the  Christian  Church. — The  Character  of  the  Work 
the  same  now  as  in  the  Times  of  the  Apostles. — Advantages  and  Dis- 
advantages peculiar  to  different  Times. — Auxiliary  and  preparatory 
Agencies.-— The  Work  of  the  Medical  Missionary. — The  Scripture  Idea 
of  Preaching. — The  Question  of  adopting  the  native  Costume. — The 
Importance  of  Mission  Schools. — Error  of  applying  Principles  drawn 
from  one  Field  to  another  and  different  one. — Objections  to  English 
Schools  as  Missionary  Agencies. — The  Use  of  the  Press. — Character 
and  Use  of  Tracts. — The  Sphere  of  the  Bible  in  the  Work  of  Missions. 
— The  Importance  of  feeding  the  Flock.-— The  Necessity  of  training  Na- 
tive Christians  to  Habits  of  Activity  and  Independence. — The  Impor- 
tance of  raising  up  and  training  a Native  Ministry,  and  the  Difficulties 
attending  this  Work  in  China. 

The  great  mission  of  the  Christian  Church  imposed  upon 
her  by  the  express  command  of  her  glorified  Head  is  that  of 
making  known  the  “ Good  Hews  ” of  salvation  to  every  creat- 
ure under  the  whole  heaven.  It  is  not  to  teach  mechanics 
and  civil  engineering,  or  foreign  languages  or  sciences ; not 
to  Christianize  heathen  nations  by  civilizing  them,  as  some 
plainly  assert ; but  to  Christianize  them,  and  leave  them  to 
develop  their  own  form  of  civilization.  In  understanding 
the  nature  of  the  duty  imposed  by  the  great  commission,  we 
can  surely  have  no  better  guide  than  the  practice  of  the 
Apostles.  Wherever  they  went  they  knew  nothing  but  Christ 
and  Him  crucified.  Those  who  declaim  against  introducing 
among  uninstructed  heathen  what  they  are  pleased  to  repre- 
sent as  the  difficult  and  incomprehensible  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  advocate  the  commencing  with  other  simpler  and 
more  practical  matters  and  educating  them  up  to  these  things 


CHARACTER  OF  THE  WORK  UNCHANGED.  387 

gradually,  have  evidently  received  “ another  Gospel,”  widely 
differing  from  that  presented  in  the  Bible. 

The  spiritual  condition  of  the  heathen  world,  and  conse- 
quently the  character  of  the  missionary  work,  are  essentially 
the  same  now  that  they  were  when  the  immediate  disciples 
of  Christ  commenced  their  labors.  The  moral  condition  and 
spiritual  wants  of  our  common  nature  have  not  changed. 
The  end  and  object  sought,  namely,  the  conversion  and  sjoirit- 
ual  regeneration  of  the  soul,  are  precisely  the  same;  God’s 
revealed  truth  is  still  the  means  to  be  employed ; man  is  the 
feeble  instrument,  and  God’s  Spirit  the  almighty  agent. 

The  plans  and  methods  made  iise  of  in  bringing  the  truth 
to  bear  upon  the  minds  of  the  heathen  are  various,  and  may 
and  should  be  changed  and  modified  according  to  different 
conditions  and  circumstances.  While  the  apostolic  history 
furnishes  us  with  our  true  and  only  guides  and  models,  we 
are  not  to  suppose  that  we  must  in  every  respect  do  just  as 
the  Apostles  did,  for  this  would  be  impossible ; nor  that  the 
Apostles  would  not  have  pursued  a somewhat  different  course 
under  other  circumstances. 

They  had  advantages  in  the  prosecution  of  their  work 
which  were  peculiar  to  their  age ; while,  on  the  other  hand, 
we  have  our  advantages  and  compensations.  They  were  not 
only  possessed  of  the  gift  of  tongues,  and  the  power  of  work- 
ing miracles,  but  they  labored  in  regions  comparatively  near 
home,  and  having,  almost  the  same  climate ; and  among  peo- 
ple belonging  to  the  same  empire,  acknowledging  the  same 
laws,  speaking,  for  the  most  part,  the  same  language,  and  hav- 
ing, in  the  main,  the  same  customs  and  usages.  F urthermore, 
the  Jews  and  Jewish  proselytes  scattered  throughout  the  Ro- 
man Empire  had  made  the  true  idea  of  God  and  of  spiritual 
worship  more  or  less  familiar  to  those  among  whom  they 
dwelt,  and  the  Jewish  synagogue  was  a place  where  the  first 
missionaries  of  the  Gospel  might  always  find  intelligent  and 
appreciating  hearers.  These  circumstances  gave  them  great 
facilities  in  commencing  their  work  at  once,  and  with  the 

P 


338 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


highest  degree  of  efficiency,  and  also  in  constantly  changing 
the  sphere  of  their  labors. 

The  advantages  of  the  missionary  of  the  present  age  are 
these : Christianity  is  not  now  the  religion  of  a small,  unac- 
knowledged, and  despised  sect,  but  of  the  most  enlightened 
and  influential  nations  of  the  world;  its  doctrines  are  more 
clearly  developed  and  defined  than  formerly;  its  evidences 
are  the  accumulations  of  the  thinking  minds,  and  of  the  ex- 
periences and  providences  of  ages.  Christian  nations  hold 
the  controlling  influence  of  the  world ; have  opened  new  com- 
munication with  every  part  of  it;  and  have  obtained  almost 
everywhere  a toleration  and  protection  for  Christianity  which 
did  not  exist  in  the  Roman  Empire ; while  the  press  makes 
information  general  and  easy  of  acquisition. 

No  feature  of  the  labors  of  the  first  propagators  of  Chris- 
tianity was  more  prominent  than  this,  that  the  Gospel  was 
proclaimed  in  connection  with  acts  of  kindness  and  humanity 
— healing  the  sick,  raising  the  dead,  and  comforting  the  dis- 
tressed. One  striking  sentence  of  the  inspired  Scriptures 
characterizes  the  whole  life  of  our  Saviour.  “ He  went  about 
doing  good.”  Miraculous  powers  were  given  the  Apostles, 
and  constantly  made  use  of  by  them  in  their  ministry.  One 
of  the  reasons  for  conferring  this  power  was,  no  doubt,  to  give 
to  the  new  religion  a divine  authority  and  sanction ; but  an- 
other very  important  one  was  that  of  attracting  attention,  re- 
moving prejudice,  gaining  the  confidence  and  affection  of  the 
people,  and  stamping  the  religion  of  Jesus  as  one  of  love,  of 
human  sympathies,  and  of  “ good-will  toward  men.” 

This  great  principle  and  rule  of  action  illustrated  in  the 
life  of  Christ  and  of  the  Apostles  is  as  important  and  applica- 
ble now  as  ever.  A missionary  who  has  little  regard  for  the 
temporal  wants  and  sorrows  of  those  with  whom  he  comes  in 
contact,  and  regards  his  duty  discharged  when  he  has  taught 
the  sin  of  idolatry,  denounced  the  law  against  the  transgressor, 
and  pointed  him  to  Christ  as  the  only  refuge,  very  imperfectly 
illustrates  the  spirit  of  Christ’s  Gospel,  and  is  likely  to  have  a 


c 


THE  MEDICAL  AKT  AS  AN  AUXILIARY. 


389 


comparatively  fruitless  ministry.  It  is  true  that  we  can  not 
relieve  a hundredth  part  of  the  misery  which  we  are  obliged 
to  witness,  but  we  may  and  ought  to  do  what  we  can  toward 
it.  We  may  show  a lively  sympathy  and  good-will,  if  we 
have  it,  in  a thousand  ways.  In  order  to  convince  and  in- 
form the  understanding,  we  must  first  reach  and  influence  the 
heart. 

To  secure  this  object,  the  co-operation  of  foreign  Chris- 
tian physicians  is  of  great  importance.  It  is  impossible  to 
tell  how  much  of  our  success  in  gaining  the  confidence  of  the 
people  is  due  to  this  agency.  I remember  that  when  I was 
endeavoring  to  establish  a station  in  the  interior  city  of 
Hang-cliow,  and  the  people  were  regarding  me  with  consider- 
able prejudice  and  suspicion,  one  day,  while  I was  speaking 
to  a crowd  in  the  street,  a soldier  forced  his  way  toward  me, 
and,  addressing  me  very  cordially  and  respectfully,  pointed  to 
a deep  scar  on  his  cheek.  Ide  said  he  had  once  been  severely 
wounded  in  battle,  and  that  in  the  hospital  in  Shanghai  Dr. 
Lockhart  had  dressed  and  healed  his  wounds  and  saved  his 
life.  Another  man  in  the  same  company  said  that  he  had  re- 
ceived similar  kindness  from  Dr.  M'Cartee  in  Ningpo ; and 
both  testified  that  in  the  hospital  they  were  taught  the  same 
doctrine  that  I was  then  preaching.  Hundreds  and  thousands 
such  as  these  scattered  along  the  coast,  and  in  some  of  the  in- 
terior provinces,  are  constantly  bearing  testimony  in  our  favor. 

Aside  from  relieving  suffering,  and  having  an  influence  to 
dispose  the  people  kindly  toward  us,  the  practice  of  the  heal- 
ing art  affords  the  most  clear  and  decided  evidence  of  our  su- 
periority in  the  knowledge  of  some  branches,  at  least,  of  med- 
ical science.  Native  practitioners  are  so  ignorant  of  physi- 
ology,  anatomy,  and  surgery,  that  some  of  the  surgical  opera- 
tions performed  by  Western  physicians  seem  to  them  little 
less  than  miraculous.  There  is  great  need  of  medical  mis- 
sionaries in  China,  and  a noble  and  important  work  for  thorny 
to  do,  not  only  in  practicing  their  profession,  but  also  in  pre- 
paring a medical  literature  and  introducing  medical  science 


340 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


among  the  people.  I may  add  here  by  the  way  that,  notwith- 
standing the  Chinese  appreciate  and  acknowledge  our  superi- 
ority in  surgery,  most  of  them,  and  many  even  of  the  native 
Christians,  prefer  their  own  physicians  in  fevers  and  other 
familiar  diseases  of  the  country. 

So  much  for  agencies  which  are  introductory  and  auxiliary 
to  the  primary  and  ultimate  work  of  the  missionary — that  of 
preaching  the  Gospel. 

It  is  a very  important  question,  which  meets  us  at  the 
outset:  what  are  we  to  understand  by  the  preaching  of  the 
Gospel  ? There  seems  to  be  a tendency  to  interpret  this  duty 
according  to  our  modern  and  specific  idea  of  preaching, 
namely,  the  formal  addressing  of  public  audiences.  I believe 
the  scriptural  idea  is  a much  more  general  one,  embracing 
every  possible  mode  of  presenting  Christian  truth.  The 
great  missionary  commission  is  given  in  its  fullest  and  most 
clearly  defined  form  in  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew:  “Go  ye 
therefore,  and  teach  (literally  make  disciples  of)  all  nations ; 
baptizing  them  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son, 
and  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  teaching  them  to  obseiwe  all  things 
whatsoever  I have  commanded  you.”  Our  work,  then,  con- 
sists of  three  distinct  parts : making  or  gathering  disciples ; 
baptizing  and  organizing  them  into  churches ; and  teaching 
them  and  building  them  up  in  the  faith.  Disciples  are 
gathered  by  bringing  before  them  the  truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus. 
This  the  Apostles  did  in  a variety  of  ways — by  casual  conver- 
sation, by  visiting  from  house  to  house,  by  mingling  socially 
with  the  people  in  their  feasts  and  public  gatherings,  by 
teaching,  by  epistolary  correspondence,  and  by  formal  public 
addresses.  The  fact  that  speaking  or  preaching  to  large 
audiences  is  almost  unknown  in  China,  and  the  importance  of 
the  social  and  individual  presentation  of  the  truth,  have  been 
spoken  of  in  a former  chapter. 

^ To  facilitate  free  and  familiar  intercourse  with  the  people, 
some  have  recommended  the  adoption  of  the  native  costume. 
By  making  use  of  it  in  visiting  places  for  the  first  time,  a 


SCHOOLS  AS  A MISSIONARY  AGENCY. 


341 


missionary  in  a great  measure  escapes  notice,  and  is  not  fol- 
lowed by  such  large  crowds.  This  renders  his  itinerations 
more  quiet  and  less  laborious  ; but  for  this  reason,  they  would 
probably  be  less  effective.  As  the  natives  soon  learn  to  rec- 
ognize the  missionary  as  a foreigner  whatever  costume  he 
adopts,  his  dress  becomes  a matter  of  comparatively  little  im- 
portance. The  great  and  essential  point  is  to  cultivate  and 
manifest  a warm  sympathy  and  interest,  and  a cordiality  of 
manner.  Without  these,  the  adoption  of  the  native  costume 
would  only  make  the  missionary’s  deficiencies  the  more 
striking ; with  them,  I believe  the  use  of  our  own  national 
costume  will  not  at  all  detract  from  the  esteem,  familiarity, 
and  respect  with  which  we  will  be  regarded. 

The  question  respecting  the  practicability  and  desirable- 
ness of  mission  schools  in  China  is  one  of  much  importance. 
Many  missionary  societies  have  discarded  them,  as  an  agency 
expensive,  absorbing  a great  deal  of  the  missionaries’  time 
and  strength, .and  comparatively  fruitless  in  results;  urging 
those  whom  they  send  out  to  devote  themselves  chiefly,  if  not 
exclusively,  to  preaching.  I am  decidedly  of  the  opinion  that 
this  principle  is  a mistaken  and  an  unfortunate  one,  as  re- 
gards the  Chinese  Empire.  It  seems  to  have  been  adopted 
as  a result,  principally,  of  a discouraging  experience  with 
English  schools  in  India.  But  it  does  not  follow  that  be- 
cause schools  have  not  proved  successful  in  India  they  there- 
fore will  not  in  China;  much  less  that  because  a particular 
kind  of  schools  has  not  -answered  our  expectations  in  one 
place,  the  same  result  will  follow  the  establishment  of  all 
other  kinds  of  schools  everywhere. 

It  is  a serious  error  among  Christians  at  home,  though  I 
believe  a very ’common  one,  to  apply  rules  and  principles 
drawn  from  a limited  experience  in  one  missionary  field  to 
missionary  operations  generally.  Some  persons  seem  to  re- 
gard the  heathen  as  all  belonging  to  the  same  class,  and  con- 
forming to  one  type ; while  in  fact  they  differ  very  widely, 
each  nation  having  a marked  individuality  of  its  own.  What 


342 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


a wide  difference  between  the  uncultivated  tribes  of  Africa 
and  the  inhabitants  of  the  Chinese  Empire  ! and  again,  be- 
tween either  of  these  races  and  the  Nestorians  and  Armeni- 
ans, who  can  hardly  be  called,  with  strict  propriety,  heathen. 
And  when  we  look  at  the  Mohammedans,  the  inhabitants 
of  India  and  Japan  and  Siam,  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific 
and  our  Western  Indians,  we  find  that  each  race  and  nation 
has  its  own  peculiarities,  and  requires,  in  the  mode  of  intro- 
ducing the  Gospel  special  modifications  and  adaptations  which 
can  best  be  devised  and  applied  by  the  missionaries  on  the 
ground. 

But  to  return  from  this  digression : the  result  of  more 
than  twenty  years’  experience  with  our  boy’s  boarding-school 
and  girl’s  boarding-school  in  Ningpo  is  to  show  that  schools 
of  this  kind  are  among  the  cheapest  and  most  efficient  mis- 
sionary agencies  which  can  be  employed  in  China.  They 
have  had  devoted  to  them  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  time 
and  labor  of  our  missionary  force,  and  during  the  early  his- 
tory of  our  Church  in  that  place  they  furnished  a large  pro- 
portion of  its  members — I believe  more  than  one-half ; while 
the  greatly-increased  number  of  accessions  during  the  last 
four  or  five  years  in  our  out-stations  is  due  mostly  to  the 
efforts  of  native  laborers,  who  have  been  brought  into  the 
Church  through  these  institutions  for  educating  and  training 
the  young.  In  a word,  the  growing  success  of  the  Ningpo 
Mission  in  bringing  souls  to  Christ  and  establishing  churches 
in  our  out-stations  may  be  traced)  in  a great  degree,  to  the 
two  schools  above  referred  to. 

The  same  results  have  not  followed  the  establishment  of 
English  boarding-schools.  Indeed,  it  must  be  admitted,  they 
have  added  very  little  to  the  membership  of  native  churches, 
or  to  the  efficient  working  force  of  the  missions  with  which 
they  have  been  connected.  The  Ningpo  Mission,  anticipating 
the  results  which  have  followed  in  other  places,  excluded 
•English  from  its  schools  at  an  early  period,  aiming  at  the 
thorough  acquaintance  of  the  pupils  with  their  own  language 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  IN  SCHOOLS.  343 

and  literature,  and  their  familiarity  with  the  Scriptures  and 
Christian  doctrines. 

The? facts  and  circumstances  bearing  upon  the  subject  of 
teaching  English  are  these : In  China  there  is  an  urgent  de- 
mand for  interpreters  who  understand  both  the  English  and 
Chinese  languages.  The  “ Pigeon-English,”  described  in 
Chapter  XIV.,  is  made  to  answer  as  a medium  of  communi- 
cation for  ordinary  purposes  of  trade;  but  Chinamen  who 
can  speak  English  well  are  still  much  sought  after,  and  com- 
mand salaries  from  five  to  ten  times  as  large  as  the  same 
persons  would  receive  if  they  were  familiar  with  their  own 
language  only.  Here  is  a strong  temptation  to  draw  boys 
acquainted  with  our  language  from  mission  schools  even  be- 
fore the  time  of  their  indenture  expires.  Most  of  the  pupils 
from  those  schools  where  English  has  been  taught  have 
yielded  to  these  temptations,  sought  employment  in  the  foreign 
communities,  and  been  lost  to  the  missions ; and  some  of  them 
have  formed  such  habits  and  acquired  such  characters,  as  to 
bring  reproach  upon  themselves  and  the  cause  of  missions 
with  which  they  have  been  in  a measure  connected.  If  a few 
are  hopefully  converted,  and  retain  their  connection  with  the 
church  and  the  mission,  their  knowledge  of  English  gives  them 
little  or  no  additional  influence  with  their  countrymen ; while 
they  have  acquired  it  at  the  expense  of  a thorough  Chinese 
education,  and  can  hardly  secure  the  respect  of  their  own  peo- 
ple as  literary  men  or  teachers.  More  than  this,  they  are  apt 
to  think  that  it  is  very  moderate  and  reasonable  for  them  to 
expect  one-half  or  one-third  as  large  a salary  as  they  can  com 
mand  in  the  foreign  communities  ; and  thus,  while  a knowl- 
edge of  English  does  not  add  to  their  efficiency  as  agents  of 
the  mission,  it  adds  much  to  their  expensiveness. 

Of  course,  there  can  be  no  objection  to  the  establishment 
of  English  schools  in  China ; and  they  are,  indeed,  much 
needed ; but,  under  the  circumstances,  this  matter  should  be 
attended  to  by  the  foreign  communities,  and  not  by  Christians 
at  home  ; and  such  schools  should  not  be  regarded  as  distinct- 


3U 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


ively  a missionary  agency.  Were  they  established  by  benev- 
olent and  enterprising  merchants  in  the  foreign  communities, 
having  for  their  express  object  the  supplying  of  English  and 
Chinese  interpreters,  and  also  a knowledge  of  Western  science 
and  literature,  and  placed  in  charge  of  efficient  Christian 
teachers,  they  might  accomplish  great  good  in  facilitating  in- 
tercourse between  China  and  Western  nations;  and  at  the 
same  time  prove  an  important  auxiliary  to  the  work  of  mis- 
sions. 

It  appears  to  me  that  the  teachings  and  example  of  the 
New  Testament  do  not  sanction  or  authorize  any  indirect 
methods  of  propagating  the  Gospel  except  in  a manner  inci- 
dental, subordinate,  and  auxiliary  to  the  great  end.  Human 
science  has  no  regenerating  and  sanctifying  power  in  it.  An 
acquaintance  with  Western  languages' not  only  introduces  the 
student  to  the  stores  of  religious  and  scientific  knowledge,  but 
to  works  which  teach  rationalism,  infidelity,  and  “ science  false- 
ly so  called.”  As  a result  of  introducing  our  language  into 
India,  English  works  on  infidelity  are  now  republished  there, 
and  are  eagerly  sought  after  by  educated  young  men  who 
have  been  taught  in  mission  and  government  schools ; and 
there  is  reason  to  fear  that  missionaries  may  find  the  educated 
talent  which  they  have  helped  to  create  arrayed  against  them 
and  Christianity,  armed  with  weapons  drawn  from  the  dead- 
liest enemies  of  our  faith.  It  is  true  that  the  period  of  con- 
troversy must  come,  and  that  the  truth  need  fear  no  opposi- 
tion or  attack  ; but  it  will  come  soon  enough  from  the  preach- 
ing of  the  simple  Gospel  in  the  language  of  the  country ; and 
in  this  way  it  will  come  in  a form  much  more  likely  to  insure 
the  signal  triumph  of  the  truth.  Christianity,  on  its  introduc- 
tion into  heathen  countries,  does  not  generally  affect  first  the 
learned  minds  of  the  country,  and  through  them  the  masses, 
but  it  finds  its  first  converts  among  the  middle  and  lower  class- 
es ; its  leaven  operates  silently  and  almost  unperceived  among 
the  masses  ; it  becomes  Avidely  diffused ; strikes  its  roots  deep 
and  firm  into  the  native  soil,  and  powerfully  affects  and  con- 


THE  USE  OF  THE  PRESS. 


345 


trols  the  native  mind.  As  the  natural  result  of  this  process,  a 
controversy  would  arise,  not  between  the  foreign  missionary 
and  a few  semi-Christianized  or  science-Christianized  natives, 
in  which  the  people  generally  would  have  little  or  no  interest, 
but  one  between  native  Christians  and  the  representatives  and 
defenders  of  the  old  forms  of  idolatry.  This  controversy 
would  not  be  the  reproduction  of  those  originating  in  other 
ages  and  countries  entirely  foreign  to  native  thought  and  cir- 
cumstances, calculated  only  to  place  the  whole  subject  of 
Christianity  in  a false  and  prejudicial  light  before  the  people, 
but  one  naturally  growing  out  of,  and  belonging  to,  the  pres- 
ent. It  would  be  a controversy  not  in  a foreign  tongue,  but  in 
the  language  of  the  people,  moulded  and  directed  by  native 
thought,  taking  a form  suited  to  the  native  mind  ; forming  a 
new  epoch,  and  marking  the  period  of  the  downfall  of  idolatry, 
and  the  establishment  of  the  religion  of  Jesus. 

While  I believe  the  experience  of  missionaries  in  every  field 
tends  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  the  apostolic  practice 
of  the  oral  presentation  of  the  truth,  in  methods  adapted  to 
varying  circumstances,  and  to  the  degree  of  intelligence  and 
information  of  different  individuals ; still,  the  powerful  agency 
of  the  Press  must  not,  in  this  age,  be  neglected.  Christian 
tracts  should  be  regarded  as  taking  the  place  as  far  as  they 
can  of  the  oral  teacher  ; having  the  one  advantage  of  travers- 
ing wider  fields,  and  perhaps  reaching  more  individuals  than 
the  living  preacher  can.  Like  oral  teachings,  they  should  be 
specifically  adapted  to  the  native  mind ; looking  at  the  truth 
from  the  native  stand-point,  and  as  logically  connected  with 
the  prevailing  religious  systems,  doctrines,  and  modes  of 
thought.  F or  this  reason,  reprints  of  our  standai’d  and  most 
valuable  tracts  would  be  almost  useless ; and  hardly  a single 
one,  as  far  as  I am  aware,  has  been  translated  for  the  purpose 
of  general  distribution.  We  have  the  “ Pilgrim’s  Progress,” 
“ Henry  and  his  Bearer,”  “ Come  to  Jesus,”  and  a few  works 
of  this  class  ; but  they  are  not  adapted  to  the  heathen  popula- 
tion of  China,  and  are  appreciated  and  used  principally  by 

P 2 


346 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


persons  wlio  have  obtained  more  or  less  instruction  in  con- 
nection with  our  established  missions,  and  occupy  much  the 
same  position  with  regard  to  Christianity  that  unconverted 
persons  do  in  our  own  country.  Hundreds  of  tracts,  some  of 
them  medium-sized  books,  and  others  containing  but  a few 
sheets,  have  been  prepared  by  missionaries  with  special  refer- 
ence to  those  who  have  never  heard  of  Christ.  Very  great 
use  has  been  made  of  them,  and  many  millions  of  pages  have 
been  scattered  throughout  the  empire,  especially  along  the 
coast.  The  results  which  they  have  produced  will  be  noticed 
in  the  next  chapter. 

It  is  proper,  and  almost  necessary,  to  refer  in  this  connec- 
tion to  the  distribution  of  the  Bible  in  China,  and  its  legitimate 
place  and  use  among  the  different  agencies  for  evangelizing  hea- 
then countries.  I find  that  many  at  home  regard  the  work  of 
the  missionary  as  made  up  in  a great  measure,  if  not  princi- 
pally, of  efforts  to  distribute  the  Bible  among  the  heathen. 
Immense  sums  of  money  have  been  contributed,  especially  by 
Christians  in  England,  to  be  appropriated  to  this  special  ob- 
ject. Views  and  plans  of  this  kind  proceed,  as  I apprehend, 
upon  a mistaken  idea  of  the  character  and  design  of  the  Bible ; 
which,  if  we  carefully  consider  the  subject,  will  be  seen,  I 
think,  to  be  neither  adapted  to  nor  intended  for  the  instruction 
of  the  heathen  as  such.  Some  have  replied  to  such  state- 
ments as  this  i “ Is  not  the  religion  of  the  Bible  a universal 
one,  and  adapted  to  the  wants  of  man  everywhere  ? and  does 
not  God  know  how  to  present  His  own  truth  to  men  infinitely 
better  than  we  do?”  On  these  questions  all  Christians  can 
but  be  in  perfect  unity  of  sentiment  and  feeling.  But  the  fact 
is,  no  part  of  the  Bible  was  addressed  primarily  to  a heathen 
people  (if  we  except  a few  such  portions  of  it  as  St.  Paul’s 
address  at  Lystra  and  on  Mars’  Hill).  On  the  contrary,  every 
part  of  it  is  addressed  to  persons  in  some  degree  instructed 
and  informed,  and  presupposes  a great  amount  of  knowledge 
which  is  necessary  to  the  correct  apprehension  of  it,  and  of 
which  heathen  nations  are  in  a great  measure  ignorant. 


DIFFICULTIES  IN  UNDERSTANDING  THE  BIBLE.  347 

The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  right  understanding  of 
the  Bible  by  the  heathen  are  of  two  kinds : the  one  growing- 
out  of  the  inability  of  their  language  to  express  Christian 
ideas ; and  the  other  relating  to  allusions  to  historical  facts 
and  personages,  and  national  usages  and  religious  rites,  with 
which  they  are  entirely  unacquainted. 

The  former  difficulties  were  spoken  of  in  the  previous 
chapter,  in  which  it  was  remarked  that  nearly  all  the  terms  in 
the  Chinese  language  have  only  idolatrous  and  heathen  asso- 
ciations, and  do  not  clearly  express  Christian  truth  to  the  na- 
tive mind  until  new  Christian  ideas  have  been  associated  with 
them  by  oral  teachings  and  explanations.  The  difficulties  of 
the  latter  kind  are  sufficiently  apparent  from  the  general  state- 
ment above,  without  further  specifications. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  Bible  will  explain  its  own  language, 
and  also  its  references  to  facts,  customs,  and  usages,  etc.  If 
the  intelligent  reader  will  only  study  it  carefully,  this  is  true ; 
but  few  persons  have  been  found  in  any  heathen  land  rvho 
have  succeeded,  unaided,  in  searching  out  its  real  meaning. 
Even  to  those  who  are  interested,  and  desire  to  understand 
it,  the  difficulties  it  presents  are  great.  If  Philip  had  reason 
to  address  to  the  Ethiopian  eunuch  just  returning  from  Jeru- 
salem the  question,  “ Understandest  thou  what  thou  readest?” 
and  if  there  was  reason  in  the  reply  of  the  enunch,  “ How  can 
I,  except  some  man  should  guide  me  ?”  is  it  strange  that  the 
Bible  should  present  almost  insuperable  difficulties  to  those 
who  have  hardly  any  idea  even  of  the  being  and  character  of 
God? 

But  the  difficulties  to  which  I am  referring  may,  perhaps, 
be  best  illustrated  by  a few  practical  examples.  Some  of  the 
historical  portions  of  the  Old  and  Hew  Testament  are,  of 
course,  in  their  primary  meaning  and  scope,  perfectly  intelligi- 
ble. Take,  for  instance,  the  history  of  Joseph,  which  has  been 
printed  separately  by  our  press  and  widely  distributed ; the 
book  following  in  the  main  the  text  of  the  Scripture  narra- 
tive without  explanations  or  comment.  The  first  page  intro- 


348 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


duces  the  subject  of  the  history  by  a reference  to  Abraham 
and  Jacob,  stating  that  Jacob  had  “two  wives,”  and  after- 
ward “ two  concubines,”  of  whom  were  born  the  twelve  pa- 
triarchs, Joseph  being  one.  This  beautiful  portion  of  the 
Bible  is  accurately  and  truthfully  presented ; but  who  would 
expect  the  Chinese  reader  to  understand  its  relation  to  the 
whole  Scripture  history  and  Christian  revelation  ? How  could 
the  distribution  of  this  and  similar  parts  of  the  Bible  without 
note  or  comment  be  regarded  as  carrying  out  the  command 
of  our  Saviour  to  evangelize  the  nations  ? It  would  be  only 
natural  for  the  Chinese  reader,  in  the  absence  of  any  explana- 
tion, to  suppose  that  the  examples  and  customs  presented  in 
the  book  were  at  least  sanctioned  by  those  who  distributed 
them ; and  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how,  without  special 
providential  interposition,  he  could  avoid  the  conclusion  that 
polygamy  and  concubinage  were  sanctioned,  if  not  recom- 
mended by  our  religion. 

As  an  example  from  the  simpler  portions  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, take  the  commencement  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark : 
“ The  beginning  of  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of 
God.”  This  seems  perfectly  simple  to  us,  and  it  may  appear 
strange  to  some  that  any  difficulty  can  be  found  in  it ; but  al- 
most every  word  in  the  sentence  is  an  enigma  to  the  heathen 
Chinaman.  According  to  the  Chinese  idiom,  the  translation 
runs  thus : “ God’s  Son  Jesus  Christ  Gospel  beginning.4’  The 
word  God  suggests  a thousand  deities  supernal  and  infernal, 
but  certainly  not  the  God  of  the  Bible,  for  alas  ! they  know 
Him  not.  “ God’s  Son  ” would  certainly  not  convey  to  the 
reader  any  idea  of  the  second  person  of  the  sacred  Trinity,  or 
help  to  form  a just  conception  of  the  character  of  the  God  re- 
ferred to.  The  names  of  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ  are  trans- 
lated by  Chinese  characters  resembling  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  sounds  of  the  original,  and  representing  simply  foreign 
names  without  meaning  or  associations.  Gospel  is  translated 
by  two  characters  meaning,  respectively,  “happiness”  and 
“ sound but  the  combination  is  a new  and  peculiar  one,  and 


THE  PROPER  USE  .OF  THE  BIBLE. 


349 


it  would  be  difficult  for  the  uninstructed  reader  to  tell  with 
certainty  its  meaning.  The  next,  and  last,  word  “ beginning,” 
which  is  evidently  connected  with  the  two  preceding  it,  form- 
ing the  expression  “ happiness  sound  beginning,”  affords  no 
assistance  toward  making  it  intelligible.  Each  of  the  follow- 
ing verses,  looked  at  from  the  Chinese  stand-point,  presents 
similar  difficulties,  and  is  liable  to  some  other  misconception. 

Thus  we  are  brought  back  to  the  precept  and  practice 
plainly  revealed  in  Scripture,  that  it  is  principally  by  the  in- 
strumentality of  the  living  teacher  that  God  will  save  them 
that  are  lost.  When  the  heathen  are  brought  to  Christ,  “ As 
new-born  babes  they  desire  the  sincere  milk  of  the  word,” 
and  turn  to  the  Scriptures  as  to  their  natural  food.  Then 
their  introductory  instruction,  and  the  influence  of  the  Spirit 
by  whose  inspiration  the  sacred  volume  was  written,  furnish 
the  keys  for  unlocking  its  mysteries.  Different  truths  and 
historical  facts  are  perceived  in  their  true  connection  and  re- 
lations ; the  whole  volume  assumes  its  symmetrical  propor- 
tions as  a perfect  revelation  of  God’s  will  to  man ; and  in 
it  are  seen  the  infinite  holiness  and  perfections  of  the  Divine 
nature,  and  the  true  portraiture  of  sinful  fallen  man,  who  pre- 
sents not  one  perfect  example,  and  is  only  to  be  imitated  in 
those  peculiarities  which  accord  with  the  perfect  example  of 
Christ. 

Having  endeavored  to  state  these  views  fully  and  clearly, 
wffiich  I may  say  are,  I believe,  held  in  common  by  most  mis- 
sionaries of  experience  Avith  whom  I am  acquainted,  and  also 
by  intelligent  native  Christians  generally,  I would  be  careful 
to  guard  them  against  misapprehension.  The  Bible  should 
accompany  and  follow  the  labors  of  the  missionary,  rather 
than  precede  them.  Were  Ave  confined  to  oral  teaching,  Avith- 
out  any  translation  of  the  Scriptures,  Ave  Avould  feel  very  im- 
perfectly equipped  for  our  Avork.  All  missionaries  distribute 
the  Word  of  God  among  the  heathen  to  a considerable  extent, 
but  not  broadcast,  without  explanation,  note,  or  comment.  A 
feAV  verbal  explanations,  or  a short  introduction  to  the  Bible, 


350 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


relieve  its  general  distribution  of  many  of  the  objections  which 
have  been  stated.  Without  such  explanation  or  introduction, 
the  natural  and  reasonable  inference  of  the  Chinaman  when 
he  receives  a work  written  in  his  own  language  is,  that  the 
book  was  prepared  and  intended  for  educated  men  like  him- 
self ; that  it  is  supposed  to  be  adapted  to  their  circumstances, 
and  makes  use  of  no  words,  expressions,  or  references  which 
he  may  not  be  naturally  expected  to  understand.  Finding 
that  it  is  full  of  difficulties,  he  comes  to  the  conclusion  that 
we  are  ignorant  of  them  and  their  language,  and  are  not  fit  to 
write  a book ; and  the  idea  has  become  very  common  among 
them  that  our  Christian  literature  is  unintelligible ; and  this 
fact  is  sometimes  given  as  a reason  for  their  not  receiving 
tracts  from  us.  If,  however,  we  have  an  opportunity  to  tell 
them  that  the  Bible  did  not  originate  with  us,  but  in  different 
countries  from  our  own,  and  in  remote  ages ; that  it  is  the 
sacred  book  of  our  religion,  containing  a revelation  from  the 
only  God  of  heaven  to  the  whole  world ; that  we  give,  as  near- 
ly as  possible,  a literal  translation  of  it  from  the  original  lan- 
guages, without  daring  to  make  any  change ; stating,  at  the 
same  time,  that  they  will  meet  with  difficulties  in  understand- 
ing it,  and  urging  them  to  study  it  carefully  and  seek  for  ex- 
planations of  it  in  other  works  and  from  the  missionaries,  its 
character  is  appreciated  at  once,  and  it  is  regarded  perhaps 
with  more  profound  respect  than  if  it  wTere  easily  understood. 
W e often  give  away  the  Bible,  or  parts  of  it,  in  connection 
with  tracts ; especially  such  as  contain  some  account  of  its  ori- 
gin, character,  and  design,  or  put  it  in  the  hands  of  intelligent 
scholars  who  have  visited  us  from  motives  of  curiosity  and  in- 
terest, and  with  whom  we  have  had  the  opportunity  of  com- 
municating religious  instruction  orally. 

The  views  which  I have  presented  with  reference  to  the 
general  distribution  of  the  Bible  in  China  have  no  application 
whatever  to  mission  fields  in  Roman  Catholic  and  Mohamme- 
dan countries,  or  among  the  different  corrupt  Christian  sects 
of  Syria  and  the  Turkish  Empire.  Among  most  of  the  in- 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  PASTORAL  SUPERVISION.  351 


habitants  of  these  countries,  ideas  more  or  less  correct  of  the 
character  and  offices  of  the  three  persons  of  the  sacred  Trinity 
are  familiar  as  household  words,  and  the  Bible  is  received  and 
acknowledged  as  a revelation  from  God,  and  the  authoritative 
and  ultimate  standard  to  which  all  religious  truth  must  be  re- 
ferred. The  sphere  of  the  Bible’s  influence  in  China  is  almost 
daily  widening  as  a general  knowledge  of  Christianity  is  ex- 
tended, and  we  trust  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  the  ut- 
terance of  the  name  of  the  Book  of  books  will  awaken  the 
same  associations  and  feelings  in  the  minds  of  the  Chinese 
people  that  it  now  does  in  ours. 

My  principal  reason  for  dwelling  on  this  subject  so  much 
at  length  is  to  establish  the  general  and  important  principle 
that  the  Bible  can  not  be  used  as  a substitute  for  the  mission- 
ary ; nor  can  the  Christian  Church  be  absolved  from  its  duty 
to  give  the  Gospel  to  the  heathen  by  contributing  money  to 
send  to  them  any  number  of  Bibles.  The  living  messengers 
of  the  Church  must  go  and  introduce  the  truth  of  Christ 
among  the  natives  first  and  principally  by  oral  instruction  in 
their  mother-tongues ; by  acts  of  kindness  and  sympathy ; by 
lives  embodying  and  illustrating  the  Gospel  which  they  preach. 

In  addition  to  the  work  of  bringing  the  heathen  to  the 
knowledge  of  Christ,  a very  important  part  of  the  duty  of  the 
missionary  which  is  brought  prominently  to  view  in  the  great 
commission  is  that  of  feeding  the  flock  as  under-shepherds ; 
teaching  those  who  are  brought  into  the  Church  of  Christ  to 
observe  all  things  whatsoever  he  has  commanded.  The  mis- 
sionary who  gathers  a little  and  feeble  church,  and  leaves  it 
comparatively  uncared  for,  influenced  by  the  idea  that  his 
principal  work  is  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  the  heathen,  will  be 
in  danger  of  finding  that  the  converts  he  lias  made  are  more 
a trial  to  him  than  a comfort  or  help.  Weak  in  the  faith,  im- 
perfectly instructed,  not  wholly  freed  from  heathen  and  idol- 
atrous habits  and  associations,  and  surrounded  by  tempta- 
tions, they  need  line  upon  line — here  a little  and  there  a little 
— a careful  watch,  a tender  sympathy,  to  be  cherished  as  a 


352 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


“ nurse  cherishes  her  children.”  The  missionary,  if  he  would 
build  up  for  Christ  living,  earnest,  active  churches,  must  know 
how  to  reprove,  rebuke,  exhort  with  all  long  suffering  and 
doctrine.  His  influence,  even  upon  the  people  generally,  is 
far  greater  when  it  is  exerted  indirectly  through  native  Chris- 
tians, than  when  he  spends  his  whole  time  and  energy  in  direct 
preaching  to  the  heathen.  lie  can  preach  to  them  most  ex- 
tensively and  effectually  by  preparing  and  stimulating  every 
one  who  has  named  the  name  of  Christ  to  go  everywhere 
preaching  the  word ; to  be  living  epistles,  known  and  read  of 
all  men. 

The  first  stage  of  a missionary’s  work  in  China  is  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  subsequent  ones.  Of  course  he  must  do  all 
the  preaching  until  natives  are  brought  into  the  Church  to 
help  him.  This  period  of  waiting  for  the  first-fruits  is,  in 
some  places,  a long  and  trying  one.  When  a little  church  is 
gathered,  he  is  still  obliged  to  act  for  some  time  as  its  pastor 
until  a suitable  person  can  be  found  in  the  native  church  itself 
to  assume  the  office.  Such  native  Christians  should  be 
brought  forward  as  soon  as  possible  ; the  missionary  ever  re- 
membering that  it  is  not  his  appropriate  work  to  assume  the 
pastoral  care  of  a single  native  church  longer  than  such  a 
course  is  absolutely  necessary ; and  that,  by  doing  so,  he  may 
be  inflicting  a positive  injury  upon  it.  His  special  business 
is  to  plant  independent,  self-supporting  Christian  institutions, 
I and  to  raise  up  a native  ministry.  One  of  his  most  important 
I duties  is  that  of  teaching  and  training  native  Christians  to 
rely  upon  themselves  and  Christ  rather  than  the  foreign  mis- 
sionary, and  of  devolving  work  and  responsibility  upon  them 
just  as  fast  as  they  can  bear  them.  The  opposite  course  will 
cramp  their  intellectual  and  spiritual  development,  dwarf  their 
manhood,  and  make  them  permanently  dependent  and  inef- 
ficient. That  kindness  is  a mistaken  one  which  would  do  for 
them  what  they  can  do  for  themselves,  though  it  may  be  with 
difficulty,  and  at  first  imperfectly,  or  would  lighten  the  cross 
which  Christ  has  laid  upon  them. 


THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  A NATIVE  MINISTRY. 


858 


As  the  number  of  the  native  churches  increases,  and  the 
missionary’s  work  grows  upon  him,  he  finds  himself  wholly 
unequal  to  it,  and  he  must  have  help ; and  this  help  must 
come  principally  from  the  native  Christians.  They  should 
not  only  all  of  them  hear  witness  for  Christ  from  the  first,  but 
also,  as  soon  as  possible,  furnish  from  their  number  elders 
and  pastors,  teachers  and  evangelists,  both  to  look  after  their 
own  spiritual  interests,  and  to  carry  the  Gospel  into  the  re- 
gions beyond. 

This  important  matter  of  raising  up  a native  ministry 
claimed  a large  share  of  the  attention  of  the  Apostles ; and  it 
constitutes  one  of  the  most  necessary  and  difficult  parts  of  the 
work  of  the  modern  missionary.  The  two  extremes  equally 
dangerous  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  avoided,  of  intro- 
ducing men  into  the  sacred  office  who  have  not  the  necessary 
intellectual,  biblical,  and  spiritual  qualifications,  and  that  of 
not  making  use  of  the  material  at  hand  from  timidity  or  mis- 
judged prudence.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  missionary  work, 
high  literary  and  theological  qualifications  are  not  indispensa- 
ble. The  essential  prerequisite  is  sincere  and  earnest  piety. 
As  native  Christians  increase  in  knowledge,  the  churches  re- 
quire pastors  of  more  thorough  preparation  and  training,  and 
the  higher  the  standard  to  which  they  can  be  brought  the 
better. 

Providing  China  with  suitable  teachers  and  evangelists  is 
now  a matter  of  immediate  and  pressing  importance.  In  our 
most  flourishing  stations  churches  are  increasing  almost  more 
rapidly  than  pastors  can  be  found  for  them.  It  is  a fact  for 
which  we  should  be  thankful,  that  we  are  not  without  the  ma- 
terial for  native  laborers ; but  the  difficulty  is  in  giving  them 
the  necessary  preparation.  As  yet,  there  is  no  theological 
school  in  China,  and  the  work  of  teaching  candidates  for  the 
ministry  is  performed  by  the  missionaries  at  the  different  sta- 
tions, in  connection  with  their  other  labors.  Some  who  think 
that  the  advantages  of  theological  instruction  in  a seminary 
or  school  hardly  compensate,  even  in  our  own  country,  for 


354 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


its  disadvantages,  as  compared  with  instruction  under  the  su- 
perintendence of  a pastor  and  in  connection  with  daily  pastoral 
work,  would  naturally  conclude  that  on  mission  ground  these 
institutions  would  certainly  be  superfluous,  if  not  injurious. 
There  are,  however,  some  circumstances  peculiar  to  the  mis- 
sion fields  in  China  which  constitute  special  reasons  for  the 
establishment  of  theological  schools,  which  reasons  may  be 
briefly  referred  to. 

Ministers  are  able  to  attend  to  the  instruction  of  candidates 
at  home  because  in  our  language  we  are  supplied  with  a great 
variety  of  text-books,  in  the  study  of  which  the  student’s  time 
is  mostly  spent.  In  China  we  have  hardly  the  one-hundredth 
part  of  the  helps  to  study  which  may  be  had  at  home,  and 
therefore  must  depend  principally  on  oral  instruction,  which 
requires  so  much  time  that  missionaries,  in  addition  to  their 
other  duties,  find  it  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  give  to  this 
work  that  attention  which  its  importance  requires.  It  must 
be  remembered  further,  that  while  all  pastors  at  home  are 
supposed  to  be  competent  to  superintend  the  studies  of  can- 
didates for  the  ministry,  this  is  by  no  means  the  case  with  all 
missionaries,  as  this  undertaking  in  China  requires  an  addition- 
al preparation  which  must  be  made  on  the  ground,  including, 
at  least,  a thorough  acquaintance  with  the  spoken  language, 
while  a familiarity  with  the  literature  and  religious  systems 
of  China  is  very  desirable.  Such  qualifications  are  the  result 
of  years  of  hard  study,  and  are  not  to  be  expected  in  one  who 
has  only  been  on  the  ground  a few  years.  It  .sometimes  hap- 
pens, even  in  a large  mission,  that  owing  to  an  imperfect 
knowledge  of  the  written  or  the  vernacular  language,  or  both, 
or  from  pressure  of  other  duties,  there  are  few  if  any  who  are 
able  to  attend  to  the  studies  of  the  candidates  for  the  minis- 
try, at  least  as  they  would  wish  to,  and  students  are  obliged 
to  be  without  instruction  the  greater  part  of  the  time  simply 
from  necessity ; and,  after  spending  two  or  three  times  the 
number  of  years  which  are  generally  considered  to  be  suffi- 
cient for  a course  of  theological  study,  they  are  obliged  to 


HOW  SHALL  CANDIDATES  BE  INSTRUCTED? 


355 


give  up  in« despair,  or  to  enter  the  ministry  imperfectly  pre- 
pared. 

Again,  candidates  at  home  are  better  able  to  forego  the 
advantages  of  a course  of  instruction  in  a theological  semi- 
nary, because  they  have  usually  spent  years  in  a thorough 
course  of  intellectual  and  literary  training  in  college  and  pre- 
paratory schools,  while  most  of  our  theological  students  in 
China  have  been  almost  entirely  without  any  corresponding 
advantages  of  this  kind.  To  give  them  that  attention  which 
they  require,  some  missionary  or  missionaries  must  devote 
themselves  principally  or  exclusively  to  this  department  of 
labor.  With  our  present  small  missionary  force  for  each  sta- 
tion, to  attempt  this  work  separately  seems  an  unnecessary 
waste  of  time.  Should  it  be  assigned  to  a few  persons  spe- 
cially qualified  for  it,  and  candidates  from  different  quarters  be 
gathered  together  in  a general  school,  at  least  such  as  are  in 
circumstances  to  leave  home  and  to  undertake  a thorough 
course  of  study,  other  missionaries  would  be  greatly  relieved 
thereby,  and  would  have  more  time  to  devote  to  other  labors. 
The  theological  teachers  would  almost  necessarily  be  obliged 
to  prepare  text-books  which  would  be  of  use  throughout  the 
empire,  and  promising  young  men  who  should  enjoy  the  ad- 
vantages of  a higher  training-school  would  also  become  quali- 
fied to  assist  in  teaching  others. 

It  is  impossible  to  treat  this  subject  here  in  detail.  It  is 
my  object  simply  to  point  out  its  great  importance,  and  the 
practical  difficulties  which  attend  it. 

The  work  of  missionaries  in  China  is  fast  becoming  one  of 
general  superintendence  of  native  laborers  and  churches  ; the 
preparation  of  a Christian  and  theological  literature  ; and  the 
training  of  a native  ministry.  .As  the  work  develops  and  as- 
sumes a different  character,  a great  deal  of  practical  wisdom 
is  required  in  changing  plans  to  suit  changing  circumstances. 


356 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

RESULTS  OF  MISSIONARY  WORK. 

Unfavorable  Reports  respecting  the  Work  of  Missionaries,  and  their  inju- 
rious Effects. — The  Unreliableness  of  these  Reports,  and  the  Manner  in 
which  they  originate. — The  true  Character  of  the  Missionary  Work,  and 
the  Difficulties  attending  it. — Detailed  and  Statistical  Accounts  of  differ- 
ent Mission  Stations  not  attempted. — Much  has  been  accomplished  in 
necessary  Preparation  for  the  direct  Work  of  preaching  the  Gospel. — Ef- 
fects produced  by  the  general  Diffusion  of  Christian  Truth  among  the 
Masses. — Ripe  Fruits. — The  Classes  from  which  the  first  Converts  are 
usually  drawn,  and  the  Means  by  which  they  are  brought  into  the 
Church. — Illustrative  Experiences  of  Individuals  and  Families. — The 
Influence  of  Native  Converts  of  both  Sexes  in  building  up  Native 
Churches. — The  Work  of  Native  Preachers  in  the  Out-stations. — Gen- 
eral Statistics  of  the  Results  of  Missions  in  China. — Special  Reference 
to  the  Growth  of  Churches  at  Ningpo  and  in  the  Ports  recently  opened. 
— Remarkable  Work  in  Lao-ling. 

On  the  subject  of  this  chapter  very  different  opinions  are 
entertained.  It  is  often  asserted  by  those  who  have  spent 
years  in  China,  and  profess  to  speak  intelligently  and  advised- 
ly, that  the  missionary  work  there  has  been  a failure.  These 
reports  have  been  so  widely  and  persistently  circulated,  and 
have  had  such  a decided  and  injurious  influence  upon  many 
to  whom  we  had  naturally  looked  for  confidence,  sympathy, 
and  co- operation ,' that  it  seems  almost  a necessity  to  give  them 
a special  consideration.  It  is  but  just  to  say  that  they  are, 
in  most  instances,  repeated  frankly  and  openly,  and  that  many 
honestly  believe  that  they  present  the  facts  of  the  case.  The 
derogatory  testimony  of  others,  however,  is  given  with  such 
an  animus  as  ought  to  excite  the  suspicion  of  the  most  care- 
less ; presenting  as  it  does  the  most  conclu  si ve.  evidence  either 
of  ignorance  or  malevolence. 


CURRENT  VIEWS  OF  FOREIGN"  MISSIONS. 


357 


In  the  published  views  of  a Dr.  Marron,  a person  connect- 
ed with  a Prussian  scientific  expedition  which  visited  China, 
Japan,  and  Siam  a few  years  since,  the  following  sentences 
occur  in  connection  with  much  else  in  the  same  strain  : “ There 
is — and  when  abroad  I hear  only  one  opinion — no  institution 
more  useless  than  these  missionaries.”*  * * “ I deny  that 
there  is  a single  Christian  among  the  Chinese,  that  is,  one  who 
has  comprehended  the  Christian  doctrine,  and  whose  Christian 
social  views  have  become  the  mainspring  of  all  his  actions,” 
etc. 

Before  leaving  China,  I copied  the  following  from  the 
Hong-kong  Daily  Dress,  written  by  an  “ occasional  cor- 
respondent “ Ask  any  man  of  mind  and  of  experience  in 
China,  and  he  will  tell  you  that  it  is  childish  to  expect  to  con- 
vert them  (the  Chinese)  by  any  means  yet  attempted  to  what 
we  call  in  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,  Christianity.  And 
this  brings  me  to  another  subject;  the  farther  I travel,  the 
more  I am  convinced  that  from  Exeter  Hall,  by  way  of  Shet- 
land and  Connaught,  to  Pekin,  practical  philanthropy  must 
™ the  pioneer  to  bona  fide  Christianity.  Teach  the  Arab  to 
construct  and  inhalSt  some  more  civilized  dwelling  than  the 
low  mud  hovel  you  see  along  the  railroad  side  from  Alexan- 
dria to  Suez.  Show  the  Chinamen  by  precept  and  example  that 
honesty  is  the  best  policy,  and  that  cleanliness  is  health.  I 
say  try,  if  it  be  possible,  to  send  out  good  and  sensible  men  of 
the  civil-engineer  class  to  educate  the  ignorant  in  these  mat- 
ters, and  you  will  do  more  for  Christianity  in  fifty  years  than 
the  old  lady’s  string  of  tenets  uttered  from  the  mouths  of 
maudlin  missionaries  could  effect  in  fifty  centuries.”  It  is  not 
difficult  to  infer  the  religious  tenets  and  character  of  the  writ- 
er of  this  article,  or  to  determine  how  much  weight  should 
be  given  to  his  estimate  of  the  Christian  character  of  Chinese 
converts.  I have  not  heard  whether,  since  his  return  to  En- 
gland, he  has  succeeded  in  finding  and  sending  out  persons 
answering  to  his  ideas  of  the  model  modern  missionary. 

I would  not  quote  these  extracts  at  such  length,  did  they 


358 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


not,  as  I believe,  afford  a good  index  of  the  real  feelings  and 
opinions  of  many,  if  not  most  of  the  foreign  residents  in 
China.  I was  told  by  a very  respectable  and  intelligent 
American  connected  with  one  of  our  prominent  mercantile 
firms  in  Shanghai  that  the  above  extract  from  the  Hong-konsr 
paper  presented  his  views  and  those  of  nearly  all  of  his  ac- 
quaintances. 

Even  some  Christian  travellers  have  helped  to  circulate 
these  reports  which  they  find  current  in  the  foreign  commu- 
nities ; and  by  their  character,  and  supposed  sympathy  with 
the  cause  of  Christ,  have  given  to  them  an  authority  and  plau- 
sibility which  they  would  not  otherwise  obtain.  I met  in 
China  an  English  chaplain  who  was  collecting  information 
with  which  to  enlighten  the  Christian  public  at  home.  He 
had  just  come  from  Amoy,  where  there  were  at  that  time  at 
least  two  self-supporting  native  churches  in  connection  with 
one  mission  (that  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  of  the  Uni- 
ted States),  and  where  converts  were  multiplying  rapidly,  and 
the  missionary  work  was  full  of  interest  and  encouragement. 
He  informed  me  that  he  had  made  particular  inquiries  aboili 
the  missionaries,  and  had  learned  that  th%  had  accomplished 
hardly  any  thing ; that  their  attempt  to  Christianize  the  Chi- 
nese was  a failure.  It  is  unnecessary  to  state  where  he  obtain- 
ed his  information ; he  certainly  did  not  obtain  it  from  mis- 
sionaries, or  from  any  one  who  knew  any  thing  about  the 
subj  ect. 

It  could  not  be  expected  that  these  views,  which  are  enter- 
tained by  so  many  foreign  residents  and  travellers  in  China, 
would  not  have  a decided  influence  at  home.  Returned  mis- 
sionaries meet  with  them  everywhere. 

A few  months  since,  after  addressing  a church  in  Brooklyn 
on  the  subject  of  missions  in  China,  a lady  was  introduced  to 
me  who  said  that  she  was  very  glad  to  have  heard  my  state- 
ments ; for  she  had  been  told  repeatedly  by  an  acquaintance 
of  hers  that  the  missionary  work  in  China  had  accomplished 
nothing,  and  that  missionaries  generally  led  idle,  useless,  and, 


INJURIOUS  MISREPRESENTATIONS. 


359 


in  many  instances,  immoral  lives.  I replied  that  I was  glad  to 
be  able  to  give  her  a more  favorable  opinion  of  our  work ; and 
that  I would  also  be  very  happy  to  see  the  gentleman  referred 
to,  and,  if  possible,  to  correct  or  modify  his  impressions  by  the 
result  of  my  own  experience  and  observations.  I was  accord- 
ingly invited  to  meet  him  at  tea  the  next  evening  at  the  house 
of  a common  friend.  I was  disappointed  in  not  seeing  him 
there,  however,  as  he  declined  the  invitation,  saying  at  the 
same  time  that  his  views  were  based  on  hearsay,  and  that  he 
had  only  heard  of  one  instance  of  immorality  among  mission- 
aries, and  that  occurred  about  twenty  years  ago,  and  he  had 
forgotten  the  man’s  name ! This  is  about  what  these  reports 
generally  amount  to ; and  those  who  hear  them,  and  are  so 
often  troubled  by  them,  will  find,  by  subjecting  the  persons 
by  whom  they  are  circulated  to  a short  catechizing  as  to  the 
sources  of  their  information  and  the  reliableness  of  their  tes- 
timony, that  “ they  understand  neither  what  they  say,  nor 
whereof  they  affirm.” 

Not  long  since  a course  of  popular  and  scientific  lectures 
was  delivered  in  different  places  in  Western  New  Yqrk  by  an 
individual  from  one  of  our  Eastern  cities.  The  object  of  the 
lecturer  appears  to  have  been  the  glorification  of  the  great 
Anglo-Saxon  race.  He  had  human  skulls  and  portraitures, 
and  historical  facts  and  scientific  deductions,  to  prove  conclu- 
sively to  his  delighted  and  complacent  auditors  that  they  be- 
longed to  a race  far  superior  to  all  others.  Other  peoples  and 
tribes  were  the  results  of  separate  creations,  and  could  never 
share  with  us  either  .our  form  of  civilization  or  of  relig- 
ion. To  show  clearly  that  his  statement  and  facts  were  true 
as  applied  to  China,  he  stated  that  efforts  to  introduce  the 
Christian  religion  in  the  Chinese  Empire  had  been  so  fruitless 
and  discouraging  that  they  had  almost  been  given  up  as  use- 
less, and  Christian  societies  were  actually  recalling  their  mis- 
sionaries from  that  country  ! These  statements,  and  the  con- 
clusions drawn  from  them,  though  rather  startling,  seem  to 
have  been  accepted  and  believed  by  the  great  majority  of  those 


360 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


who  heard  them ; for  was  not  the  speaker  a popular  lecturer, 
and  an  editor  of  a New  York  City  paper,  and  (in  his  own  esti- 
mation at  least)  a careful,  learned,  scientific  man  ? 

The  effect  produced  upon  some  Christians  at  home  by  the 
testimony  of  merchants  and  others  who  have  been  in  China  is 
seen  in  a short  paragraph  in  the  New  York  Observer  of  June 
25th,  1868.  I have  no  doubt  that  the  editor  of  that  excellent 
paper  feels  a real  and  a deep  interest  in  the  cause  of  missions, 
and  that  he  would  be  glad  to  believe  that  missionaries  are 
faithful  in  the  discharge  of  their  trust;  but  he  appears  to  be 
rdther  unsettled  and  doubtful  on  the  subject.  His  remarks 
are  as  follows : “ There  is  a lamentable  want  of  sympathy  in 
China  between  the  commercial  and  religious  interests  of  the 
Western  nations.  Seldom  do  we  meet  an  Englishman  or  an 
American  engaged  in  commerce  in  that  portion  of  the  East 
who  seems  to  have  a favorable  regard  for  the  labors  of  the 
missionaries.  We  do  not  intend  to  give  reasons  at  present 
for  this  state  of  things,  but%erely  express  genuine  regret  at 
its  existence,  and  the  hope  that  new  relations  and  interests 
may  result  in  making  all  men  of  Christian  nations  alike  active 
and  earnest  for  the  spread  of  Christian  civilization  and  Gos- 
pel faith.” 

With  reference  to  all  these  reports,  I do  not  hesitate  to  say 
that  they  are  based  upon  a misapprehension  of  the  true  char- 
acter of  Christianity,  of  the  Chinese,  and  of  the  missionary 
work ; and  that  they  are  as  unfounded  in  fact,  as  they  are  un- 
generous in  spirit  and  injurious  in  effect.  Missionaries  will 
freely  admit  that  they  are  not  exempt  from  the  weakness  and 
imperfections  that  belong  to  other  professions ; that  some  of 
their  number  may  perhaps  have  mistaken  their  calling ; and 
that  the  labors  of  the  whole  body  of  missionaries  have  not 
been  followed  by  the  degree  of  success  which  might  have  been 
hoped  for,  and  which  a higher  devotion  might  have  secured. 
But  we  are  far  from  admitting  that  missionaries  as  a class 
Avill  not  bear  favorable  comparison  as  respects  intelligence, 
efficiency,  and  devotion  to  their  calling,  with  the  members  of 


ORIGIN  OF  THESE  REPORTS  EXPLAINED. 


361 


the  ministerial  or  other  learned  professions  at  home  or  abroad, 
or  that  the  missionary  work  has  been  in  any  proper  sense  “ a 
failure.” 

If  it  be  asked,  “ How,  then,  have  the  views  referred  to  above 
become  so  prevalent  ?”  the  fact  is  easily  explained.  Most  of 
the  work  of  the  missionary  is  of  such  a character  as  not  to 
strike  the  attention  of  superficial  observers.  It  is  performecT 
in  the  study,  in  the  chapel,  and  in  villages  and  cities  in  the  in- 
terior. A large  proportion  of  the  converts  are  to  be  found 
in  country  out-stations,  unvisited  and  unknown  in  the  foreign 
communities ; and  it  is  not  strange  that  merchants  hardly  ever 
see  them  or  hear  of  them.  Should  they  happen  to  meet  a compa- 
ny of  native  Christians,  they  could  not  distinguish  them  from 
the  rest  of  their  countrymen ; nor  could  they, being  unacquaint- 
ed with  the  language, hold  any  communication  with  them.  Mer- 
chants usually  obtain  their  information  from  their  body-servant 
or  “ boy,”  who  is  generally  quick  and  shrewd,  and  as  cm  fait  as 
his  master  in  the  use  of  the  Pigeon-English  ; though  not  often 
of  the  educated  or  well-informed  class,  or  at  all  acquainted 
with  missionaries  or  native  Christians.  A few  of  the  English- 
speaking  young  men  who  have  been  trained  in  mission  schools, 
and  have  acquired  a by  no  means  enviable  reputation  in  the 
foreign  communities,  are  pointed  to  by  those  who  are  willing 
to  take  up  an  evil  report  as  representative  types  of  native 
Christians  generally,  though  they  may  never  have  made  any 
profession  of  religion  whatever. 

We  would  be  most  happy  to  communicate  information  on 
the  ground  respecting  our  work  both  to  foreign  residents  and 
travellers,  but  it  is  a cause  of  regret  that  we  have  few  oppor- 
tunities to  do  so.  Merchants  are  so  absorbed  in  their  busi- 
ness that  they  seldom  have  the  time  or  disposition  to  visit  us. 
Travellers  and  officers  in  our  navy,  whom  we  are  always  most 
happy  to  see  and  entertain,  are  generally  more  interested  in 
going  to  a heathen  temple,  or  gathering  curiosities  in  the 
shops,  or  making  an  excursion  into  the  country,  than  in  visit- 
ing a native  Christian  family  or  an  out-station,  or  in  listening 

Q 


862 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


to  detailed  accounts  of  our  work.  These  persons  often  come 
to  us  with  opinions  as  to  our  work  already  formed  and  minds 
prejudiced.  It  is  as  difficult  to  remove  these  prejudices  as 
to  decide  what  course  to  pursue  in  entertaining  them.  Should 
we  determine  not  to  turn  aside  from  our  daily  employments, 
and  to  make  no  special  effort  to  render  their  visit  agreeable, 
“we  would  do  violence  to  our  own  feelings,  and  be  justly  charge- 
able with  being  deficient  in  hospitality  and  ordinary  polite- 
ness. On  the  other  hand,  if  we  give  ourselves  up  for  the 
time  to  social  enjoyment  and  recreation,  and  endeavor  to  fur- 
nish our  tables  with  somewhat  such  food  as  our  guests  are 
accustomed  to,  we  are  in  danger  of  producing  the  impression 
that  this  is  a sample  of  our  daily  life  and  occupations.  This 
has,  in  fact,  again  and  again  been  the  result  of  our  attempts 
to  “ use  hospitality.” 

I should  be  very  forgetful  and  ungrateful  not  to  mention 
that  there  are  a few  from  every  class  to  be  met  with  abroad 
who  visit  us  when  they  can,  who  go  with  us  to  our  work,  and 
examine  carefully  into  its  details,  and  whose  testimony  with 
reference  to  us  and  to  missions  is  almost  more  favorable  than 
we  deserve  or  .wish.  But  this  testimony,  if  published,  is  found 
in  papers  which  those  of  opposite  opinions  and  sympathies 
seldom  read ; and,  if  given  in  conversation,  is  received  with 
prejudice  and  suspicion.  It  should  be  added  further,  that  the 
ports  where  most  foreigners  are  found  are  the  ones  where 
missionaries  .have  accomplished  least,  and  there  are  conse- 
quently fewer  results  to  point  to  than  in  other  places. 

These  discouraging  representations  of  missionary  work, 
while  they  are  innocently  circulated  by  many  who  suppose 
them  to  be  true,  originate,  for  the  most  part,  with  those  who 
would  fain  believe*  that  there  are  no  consistent  native  Chris- 
tians in  China  ; as  such  would  be  a standing  reproof  to  them, 
reminding  them  of  their  own  inconsistency  and  neglect ; per- 
haps of  broken  vows  and  a shipwrecked  faith,  and  a life  on 
account  of  which  the  name  of  God  is  blasphemed  among  the 
heathen. 


RESULTS  WHICH  MAY  BE  EXPECTED. 


363 


In  forming  a just  estimate  of  the  kind  and  degree  of  re- 
sults which  might  be  reasonably  expected,  it  is  necessary  to 
take  into  view  the  nature  of  the  work,  and  the  circumstances 
under  which  it  is  prosecuted.  First,  and  principally,  the 
greatest  of  all  difficulties  which  we  find  in  every  land,  and  in 
our  own  individual  consciousness,  exists  in  China  unrestrained 
and  intensified.  This  difficulty  is  clearly  expressed  in  Holy 
Writ : “ The  carnal  mind  is  enmity  against  God ; for  it  is  not 
subject  to  the  law  of  God,  neither  indeed  can  be.”  And 
again : “ The  natural  man  receiveth  not  the  things  of  the 
Spirit  of  God,  for  they  are  foolishness  unto  him ; neither  can 
he  know  them,  because  they  are  spiritually  discerned.”  To 
the  opposition  and  blindness  of  our  common  nature,  there  are 
superadded  in  China  many  obstacles  which  are  unknown  in 
Christian  lands,  and  which  it  is  difficult  for  most  persons  fully 
to  appreciate.  The  minds  of  the  people  are  preoccupied  by 
systems  of  error  adapted  to  satisfy  their  religious  longings 
and  allay  their  fears ; systems  sanctioned  and  confirmed  by 
the  usage  of  their  ancestors  for  thousands  of  years,  and  inter- 
woven with  all  their  social  and  civil  institutions.  Idolatry 
and  superstition  have  entered  into  and  corrupted  their  lan- 
guage, and  the  very  constitution  of  their  minds,  so  that  it  seems 
at  first  that  every  avenue  through  which  they  can  be  reached 
by  the  truth  is  closed. 

It  must  be  further  remembered  that  those  who  have  un- 
dertaken this  work  are  very  few.  The  whole  number  of  Prot- 
estant missionaries  now  in  China  from  Europe  and  America 
is  about  one  hundred.  W ere  England  and  the  United  States 
supplied  with  religious  teachers  at  the  same  rate  in  propor- 
tion to  the  population,  they  would  have  about  ten  ministers  of 
the  Gospel  each. 

In  view  of  these  and  other  difficulties  which  might  be 
mentioned,  some  of  them  originating  with  foreigners,  such  as 
the  opium-trade,  which  is  a standing  objection  to  Christianity, 
and  the  notorious  immorality  and  lawlessness  of  many  who 
belong  to  nominally  Christian  nations,  the  Christianizing  of 


364 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


China  by  the  preaching  of  Christ  and  Him  crucified  might 
well  be  coflsidered  (judged  of  by  ordinary  principles  of  cause 
and  effect,  aside  from  special  divine  interposition  and  aid)  as 
visionary  and  impossible.  Our  ground  of  confidence  is  in 
the  fact  that  the  Christian  religion  is  equally  adapted  to,  and 
designed  for  all  ages  and  peoples,  and  that  God  has  declared 
that  it  shall  prevail  over  the  whole  world. 

Between  the  opposite  and  equally  extreme  and  unreason- 
able views  that  the  Christianization  of  heathen  nations  is  im- 
.possible,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  we  have  a right  to  be 
surprised  and  disappointed  if  they  do  not  embrace  Christianity 
in  large  numbers  on  the  first  presentation  of  it,  we  have  the 
scriptural  view  that  the  success  of  the  Gospel,  wherever  it  is 
preached,  is  certain,  and  that  it  generally  reaches  its  results 
from  small  and  almost  imperceptible  beginnings.  The  king- 
dom of  Heaven  is  compared  by  Him  who  is  the  head  of  that 
kingdom  to  the  “ least  of  all  seeds  ” and  to  the  “ hidden 
leaven.”  Its  progress  and  workings  are  silent,  gradual,  and 
unperceived ; but  certain,  continuous,  and  irresistible,  accord- 
ing to  a fixed  law  of  life  and  development.  n 

War  and  commerce  change  the  relations  and  conditions  of 
nations  rapidly,  and  sway  and  constrain  the  minds  of  vast 
populations  in  a body,  producing  those  marked  changes  in 
the  outward  condition  of  nations  which  are  seized  upon  by 
the  historian  as  great  national  epochs.  These  changes  are, 
however,  often  as  superficial,  evanescent,  and  disappointing- 
in  their  results,  as  they  are  rapid  and  startling  in  their  mani- 
festations. The  Gospel  of  Christ  does  not  perform  its  work 
upon  nations  in  the  aggregate.  Its  sublime  mission  is  that 
of  conquering  and  subduing  nations  by  subduir^  its  individ- 
ual members,  bringing  into  captivity  every  thought  to  the 
obedience  of  Christ.  It  does  not  overpower  and  constrain 
for  the  time  the  will,  but  enlightens  the  mind,  convinces  the 
understanding,  and  regenerates  the  heart.  It  goes  down  to 
the  very  foundations  of  individual  life,  society,  and  govern- 
ment; and  its  greatest  triumphs  are  realized  before  its  out- 


THE  THREE-FOLD  CLASSIFICATION  OF  RESULTS.  365 

ward  effects  are  perceived.  The  leaven,  though  hidden,  is 
constantly  working,  and  pervading  the  whole  mass.  The 
mustard-seed,  though  unperceived  and  undiscoverable,  is 
every  moment  developing  its  germ,  and  calling  into  action 
those  vital  forces  by  which  it  is  to  come  forth  to  the  light  and 
spread  wide  its  branches.  It  is  unreasonable  and  useless  to 
expect  the  harvest  without  waiting  for  the  early  and  latter 
rain,  or  to  gather  ripe  and  abundant  fruit  from  trees  which 
have  been  but  just  transplanted,  and  are  but  beginning  to 
send  forth  their  roots  into  the  soil.  The  order  of  nature  and 
of  grace  is  “ First  the  blade,  then  the  ear ; after  that,  the  full 
corn  in  the  ear.” 

These  preliminary  remarks  and  explanations,  which  have 
been  prolonged  far  beyond  my  first  intention,  I trust  the  reader 
will  not  regard  as  inappropriate  or  uncalled  for,  under  the 
circumstances;  and  I now  proceed  to  the  main  subject  of  this 
chapter. 

The  limits  which  I have  prescribed  for  myself  will  not  ad- 
mit of  special  and  detailed  reference  to  individual  mission- 
aries or  missions,  or  even  to  the  history  and  ojjerations  of  the 
particular  stations  with  which  I have  been  connected.  It  is 
rather  my  object  to  state  facts  and  principles  applicable  to 
missions  in  general.  But  in  giving  a general  view  of  our 
work  and  its  results,  it  seems  very  desirable  and  almost  neces- 
sary to  make  free  use  of  illustrative  facts  taken  from  mission- 
ary life.  In  doing  this,  I shall  draw  principally  upon  my 
own  experience;  partly  on  account  of  the  labor  and  time 
which  would  be  necessary  to  collect  the  same  materials  from 
other  sources,  and  partly  because,  in  speaking  of  facts  and  oc- 
currences with  which  I am  familiar,  I can  with  greater  cer- 
tainty avoid  inaccuracy  and  misrepresentation.  I hope  that 
these  statements  in  explanation  will  relieve  me  from  the 
charge  of  egotism,  or  a want  of  interest  in,  or  appreciation 
of  the  labors  of  others. 

The  actual  results  of  missionary  labor  may  conveniently  be 
arranged  under  three  general  heads. 


366 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


1st.  Advancement  in  the  necessary  preparation  for  the  dif- 
fusion of  Christian  truth. — It  is  evident,  to  any  reasonable 
and  thoughtful  person,  that  years  of  preparation  are  required 
in  China  before  entering  effectively  upon  direct  evangelistic 
work.  A most  difficult  language  must  be  acquired,  and  also 
more  or  less  familiarity  with  the  literature  and  religious  sys- 
tems of  China  and  native  modes  of  thought.  At  first  it  is 
not  easy  to  determine  upon  the  best  plan  for  reaching  the  peo- 
ple, and  the  proper  agencies  to  be  employed.  The  amount  of 
labor  of  this  kind  performed  in  China  it  is  difficult  to  esti- 
mate, or  for  those  who  have  not  become  familiar  with  it  by 
personal  experience  fully  to  appreciate.  It  should  ever  be 
borne  in  mind  that  such  occupations  as  these,  though  at  first 
they  have  only  a literary  character,  are  in  the  strictest  sense 
missionary  work,  and,  when  successfully  prosecuted,  result  in 
a most  important  advantage  to  the  cause.  Most  of  the  mis- 
sionaries in  China-  speak  the  language  not  only  intelligibly, 
but  accurately  and  fluently.  Some  of  them  who  have  been 
long  in  the  field  are  now  ripe  Chinese  scholars,  having  gone 
on  increasing  in  their  qualifications  for  usefulness  during 
most  of  the  period  since  the  opening  of  the  country.  Dic- 
tionaries, grammars,  and  vocabularies  have  been  prepared ; 
careful  translations  of  the  Bible  have  been  made,  not  only  in 
the  universal  literary  language,  but  in  many  of  its  local  dia- 
lects. Schools  have  been  established,  and  text-books  prepared 
for  those  schools ; tracts  suited  to  the  Chinese  mind  have 
been  written ; houses  and  chapels  have  been  built ; materials 
and  appliances  for  extending  our  work  have  been  gathered, 
and  plans  for  futm-e  labor  have  been  matured.  These  pre- 
liminaries are  as  indispensable  in  our  work  as  it  is  for  an 
army  to  provide  itself  with  stores  and  equipments,  to  become 
acquainted  with  military  tactics  and  drill,  and  with  the  posi- 
tion, character,  and  resources  of  the  enemy,  before  entering 
upon  a campaign.  When  this  preparation  is  made,  a stage  of 
progress  is  reached,  a positive  result  secured,  and  a real  ap- 
proximation made  toward  the  great  end  in  view. 


PERSISTENT  LABOR  FRUITFUL. 


367 


2d.  The  general  diffusion  of  elementary  Christian  truth 
among  the  masses  is  another  result  of  great  importance. 

When  a missionary  has  acquired  the  language,  he  may  di- 
rect his  attention  to  general  labors  among  the  masses,  or  con- 
centrate his  efforts  upon  a comparatively  few  individuals  who 
are  brought  within  the  sphere  of  his  daily  influence.  Most 
persons  carry  on  both  of  these  kinds  of  labor  together.  The 
natural  effect  of  the  former  is  to  produce  a partial  and  imper- 
fect result  on  a large  scale  ; while  that  of  concentrated  effort 
is  to  produce  a complete  and  ultimate  result  on  a small  scale, 
and  in  a comparatively  short  period  of  time.  In  scattering 
the  seed  broadcast  by  the  distribution  of  tracts,  or  in  desul- 
tory preaching  to  transient  hearers,  the  system  of  Christian 
truth  as  a complete  whole  is  not  clearly  apprehended.  Still, 
some  simple  doctrines  are  received  into  many  hearts,  and  are 
gradually  communicated  from  one  to  another.  It  is  a fact 
full  of  encouragement  that  much  Christian  knowledge,  though 
fragmentary  and  imperfect,  has  been  treasured  up  in  the 
minds  of  many  who  are  not  yet  disenthralled  from  the  slavery 
of  idolatry;  and  though  for  the  present  overshadowed  by  the 
ranker  growths  of  error,  and  chilled  by  the  colei  and  blighting 
atmosphere  of  idolatry  and  superstition,  these  imperishable 
seeds  of  divine  truth,  though  for  a time  dormant,  will,  under 
favoring  circumstances  in  the  good  providence  of  God,  spring 
up  and  proeluce  an  abundant  harvest.  These  truths  are  talked 
of  in  ten  thousand  homes  ; they  are  allaying  prejudice,  under- 
mining old  systems,  and  daily  becoming  more  widely  diffused 
and  more  clearly  understood.  It  is  quite  possible  that  those 
efforts  which  seemed  in  the  beginning  to  be  fruitless,  will 
prove  in  the  end  to  have  been  most  blessed ; and  that  many 
whose  sorrowful  complaint  through  life  has  been  “ Who  hath 
believed  our  report  ? and  to  whom  is  the  arm  of  the  Lord  re- 
vealed ?”  will  have  reason,  when  they  see  the  wide-spread  ef- 
fects of  their  work  of  faith  and  patience,  to  thank  God  for 
the  special  labors  to  which  he  assigned  them.  Many  in- 
stances might  be  cited  in  the  experience  of  different  mission- 


yes 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


aries  in  China  in  which  persons  who  had  received  religious 
instruction,  and  had  afterward  been  lost  sight  of  and  almost 
forgotten,  have,  after  a period  of  years,  reappeared,  sought 
further  instruction,  and  become  earnest  and  useful  Christians. 

A very  decided  effect  is  often  produced  upon  the  masses 
before  any  converts  have  been  received  from  them  into  the 
Church  ; an  effect  which  for  the  time  seems  to  repel  rather  than 
attract  the  people,  though  it  marks  a legitimate  and  important 
advancement  in  the  progress  of  our  work.  In  1 86 1 Baptist  and 
Presbyterian  missionaries  from  the  United  States  commenced 
their  labors  in  the  city  of  Tung-chow,  in  the  province  of 
Shantung.  The  people  received  us  with  a great  deal  of  cor- 
diality and  respect,  and  we  had  many  visitors  from  the  more 
influential  and  literary  classes,  and  also  from  the  officers.  We 
were  received  and  regarded  simply  as  foreign  scholars  and 
teachers,  and  were  the  objects  of  much  interest  and  curiosity. 
When  the  simple  doctrines  of  the  Gospel  were  first  presented — 
the  unity  of  God ; His  character  as  the  one  F uther  in  Heav- 
en ; salvation  from  sin  through  Christ ; the  immortality  of 
the  soul,  and  eternal  happiness  in  Heaven,  these  sublime  truths 
were  in  the  main  received  with  interest  and  delight.  In  the 
course  of  the  year,  however,  the  whole  aspect  of  the  work  and 
the  feelings  of  the  people  were  changed.  As  they  learned 
more  of  Christianity,  and  discovered  that  it  imposed  a life 
of  self-denial ; was  in  irreconcilable  conflict  with  all  false  sys- 
tems of  religion  ; and  tolerated  no  object  of  worship  beside  the 
true  God,  their  prejudices  and  opposition  were  aroused.  The 
fact  that  several  of  ouii  servants  and  teachers  united  with  the 
church  about  this  time,  tended  still  more  to  draw  the  atten- 
tion of  the  public  toward  us  and  our  work.  To  the  great 
majority  of  the  people,  the  fact  of  a Chinaman’s  renouncing 
his  own  gods  and  the  idolatrous  practices  of  his  countrymen, 
and  worshiping  the  God  of  the  foreigners,  was  inexplicable. 
That  an  extraordinary  influence  of  some  kind  had  been  brought 
to  bear  upon  the  minds  of  native  converts  was  evident ; but 
the  people  had  no  idea  of  the  power  of  Christian  truth,  much 


' IGNORANT  AND  SUPERSTITIOUS  ' SUSPICIONS.  369 

less  of  that  of  the  Iloly  Spirit.  It  seemed  most  reasonable 
and  satisfactory  to  them  to  account  for  our  influence  by  the 
supposition  of  the  use  of  magic  and  mysterious  arts.  It  was 
generally  believed  that,  in  serving  tea  to  our  guests,  we  added 
to  it  some  foreign  medicine  or  drug,  by  which  we  gained  a 
controlling  influence  over  those  who  partook  of  it  and  made 
them  our  willing  slaves.  It  was  rumored  also  that  the  whole 
community  was  in  danger,  as  we  were  insinuating,  by  means 
of  paid  agents,  our  foreign  medicine  into  the  flour  used  in 
the  city,  and  flour  cakes  from  the  bakeries  were  at  a discount 
for  some  weeks.  We  were  at  that  time  wishing  to  rent  a 
house,  and,  in  looking  for  one,  visited  a number  of  places  in 
the  city.  Wherever  we  went  we  were  carefully  watched ; and 
as  we  were  noticed  to  go  to  the  well  in  each  place,  and  to  - 
spend  some  time  about  it,  it  was  suggested  that  we  were  poi- 
soning the  water  of  the  city ; and  well-cleaning  became  the  or- 
der of  the  day.  In  many  of  the  wells  a little  bag  of  red  powder 
was  found,  supposed  to  be  the  dreaded  medication.  This  no 
doubt  originated  with  the  well-cleaners,  who  were  reaping  a 
rich  harvest,  and  were  interested  in  confirming  and  continu- 
ing the  suspicions  of  the  inhabitants.  The  excitement  in- 
creased ; people  looked  angrily  at  us  as  we  met  them  in  the 
streets.  Inflammatory  placards  were  posted  in  different  parts 
of  the  city  maligning  our  character,  and  warning  the  people 
against  being  entrapped  and  deceived  by  us.  Violence  was 
threatened,  and  the  city  magistrates  thought  it  necessary  to 
issue  a proclamation  to  restrain  and  quiet  the  people.  The 
citizens  were  thoroughly  frightened  ; and  those  most  opposed 
to  us  were  afraid  that  they  too  might  catch  the  infection  and 
become  Christians  in  spite  of  themselves.  If  persons  more 
intelligent  and  better  informed  than  the  rest  expressed  the 
opinion  that  these  reports  were  foolish  and  groundless,  they 
were  suspected  of  being  in  league  with  us,  or  unconsciously 
influenced  by  us.  This  public  commotion,  which  was  occa- 
sioned by  evident  conversions  to  Christianity,  and  a growing 
knowledge  of  our  real  character  and  aims,  tended  greatly  to 

Q 2 


370 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


bring  missionaries  ancl  their  work  more  prominently  before 
the  people.  Our  character  and  operations  were  universal 
topics  of  conversation ; many  matters  were  explained  of  which 
they  were  before  in  doubt;  and,  when  the  excitement  sub- 
sided, it  was  generally  understood  that  the  only  means  made 
use  of  by  us  was  the  simple  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  and  that 
the  only  constraint  by  which  natives  were  led  to  embrace  it 
was  that  of  a conviction  of  its  truth.  Since  the  period  refer- 
red to,  the  people  generally  have  not  been  as  cordial  and  free 
in  their  intercourse  with  .us  as  before,  but  the  number  of 
hopeful  converts  has  constantly  increased. 

3d.  We  now  come  to  the  consideration  of  ripe  fruits  of 
missionary  labor ; of  real  conversions  from  heathenism,  and 
the  establishment  of  native  Christian  churches. 

The  great  majority  of  the  first  native  Christians  of  China,  as 
I have  before  intimated,  are  persons  who  have  been  under  the 
missionaries’  daily  influence ; who  have  had  line  upon  line,  pre- 
cept upon  precept;  who  have  thus  become  acquainted  with 
the  whole  system  of  Scripture  truth  ; and  have  not  only  learn- 
ed of  it  from  oral  teaching,  but  also  seen  it  illustrated  in  the 
life.  They  are  literary  men  employed  by  us  as  scribes  and  to 
teach  us  the  language;  servants  in  our  families,  and  pupils 
in  our  schools.  With  most  of  them  we  have  daily  opportu- 
nities for  reading  and  explaining  the  Scriptures,  pressing 
home  upon  their  hearts  and  consciences  the  matter  of  per- 
sonal religion,  and  uniting  in  social  prayer  and  praise.  They 
become  as  familiar  with  the  Scriptures  as  most  persons  are 
in  our  own  country  ; the  truth  is,  by  the  influence  of  God’s 
Spirit,  made  the  wisdom  of  God  and  the  power  of  God  unto 
their  salvation,  and  they  are  constrained  to  take  up  the  cross 
and  follow  the  Lord  Jesus. 

I can  not  better  illustrate  the  manner  in  which  individuals 
are  brought  into  the  Church  in  China,  and  made  use  of  by 
Christ  in  carrying  on  His  work,  than  by  referring  to  an  ex- 
ample from  each  of  the  classes  above  designated,  taken  from 
the  converts  belonging  to  our  mission  at  Ningpo.  They 


EXPEDIENCE  OF  A CHINESE  CONVERT. 


371 


may  be  regarded  as  representative  types  of  many  of  the  na- 
tive Christians  to  be  found  in  connection  Avith  the  different 
missions  along  the  coast. 

About  tiventy  years  ago,  a Chinese  scholar  Avdiose  family 
name  Avas  Lu  Avas  employed  by  one  of  our  missionaries  as  a 
teacher.  After  a time  he  Avas  desirous  of  leaving  home  in 
the  employ  of  a Chinese  mandarin  to  spend  several  years  in 
the  interior  as  a scribe  or  attendant.  He  introduced  to  his 
employer  his  son  Lu  Kyise-dzing,  a young  man  then  about 
tAventy  years  of  age,  and  recommended  him  as  a fit  person  to 
supply  his  place  as  teacher.  The  son  Avas  accepted,  and  the 
father  left  home,  communicating  privately  to  his  Avife  this 
parting  injunction:  “Should  Kyke-dzing  Avish  at  any  future 
time  to  embrace  The  religion  of  the  foreigners  you  must  not 
oppose  him  ; for  their  religion  is  true.”  In  the  course  of  a 
feAV  years,  Kyise-dzing,  as  his  father  had  anticipated,  Avas 
brought  by  his  convictions  of  truth  and  duty  to  decide  the 
great  question  Avhether  he  Avould  accept  or  reject  Christ  and 
His  salvation.  He  resolved  to  be  a Christian,  and  made 
knoAvn  to  his  mother  his  determination.  This  announcement 
awakened  on  her  part  violent  opposition  and  abuse.  She  de- 
clared that  she  could  not  and  Avould  not  survive  the  disgrace 
of  her  son’s  renouncing  the  religion  and  the  customs  of  his 
ancestors  and  “ following  the  foreigners and  that  if  he 
should  persist  in  being  baptized,  she  Avould  drown  herself  in 
the  river — a very  common  mode  of  committing  suicide  in 
China.  The  trying  position  of  Kyice-dzing  in  a country  Avhere 
filial  piety  and  obedience  are  regarded  as  the  first  of  all  virtues 
may  be  easily  imagined.  In  deciding  the  question  of  duty, 
he  Avas  made  to  feel  the  force  of  those  striking  words  of  our 
Saviour  Avhich  seem  designed  to  meet  just  such  cases  as  this  : 
“ He  that  loveth  father  or  mother  more  than  me  is  not  Avorthy 
of  me.”  This  trial  affected  his  mind  and  body  to  such  an 
extent  that  ho  became  seriously  ill  and  delirious,  and  his  life 
for  a time  was  almost  despaired  of.  He  recovered,  however, 
and  made  a public  profession  of  Christianity.  Time  Avould 


372 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE.’ 


fail  to  describe  the  opposition,  annoyances,  and  petty  persecu- 
tions which  he  met  with  in  his  family ; the  attempts  to  pre- 
vent him  from  engaging  in  his  religious  duties  and  private 
devotions,  and  to  draw  him  back  to  heathenism.  A firm  ad- 
herence to.  his  own  religious  convictions  in  opposition  to  the 
wishes  of  family  and  friends  proved  in  his  case,  as  in  many 
others  which  I could  name,  the  greatest  blessing  to  those  he 
loved,  and  bound  them  to  him  by  new  and  tender  bonds  of 
love  and  gratitude.  It  was  a work  of  years,  but  one  after  an- 
other every  member  of  the  family,  his  wife,  his  mother,  his 
grandmother,  his  sister,  and  a cousin  were  through  his  instru- 
mentality brought  to  Christ ; and  they  became  a united  fam- 
ily in  the  Lord,  and  one  of  the  most  interesting  Christian 
households  it  has  ever  been  my  privilege  to  know  at  home  or 
abroad.  Kyias-dzing  was  one  of  the  first  of  the  native  elders 
of  the  Ningpo  church,  and  nearly  every  member  of  the  family 
has  filled  some  useful  sphere  of  missionary  labor.  Thus  the 
influence  of  the  foreign  missionary  brought  to  bear  upon  one 
Chinaman  twenty  years  ago  was  not  only  made  the  means  of 
his  conversion,  but  has  brought  a whole  family  into  the 
Church,  and  is  now  operating  through  them  upon  scores  of 
others -who  are  brought  within  the  sphere  of  their  influence. 

Nearly  twenty  years  since  a young  man  named  Dzing  Sliih- 
nyiao  was  employed  by  Rev.  W.  A.  P.  Martin  in  Ningpo  as 
servant  and  printer.  While  connected  with  him  he  became  a 
Christian,  and  afterward  a catechist.  Through  his  faithful 
efforts  an  acquaintance  of  his  was  brought  to  Christ,  who  be- 
came the  first  native  pastor  of  the  Presbytery  of  Ningpo.  He 
now  has  the  charge  of  a church  numbering  nearly  one  hun- 
dred members,  many  of  whom  were  converted  through  his  in- 
strumentality. Dzing  Shih-nyiao  is  at  present  laboring  at  an 
out-station  more  than  a hundred  miles  in  the  interior,  where  a 
native  church  is  being  gathered. 

More  than  twenty  years  ago  a little  boy  named  King  Ling- 
yiu  was  brought  to  the  Boys’  Boarding-school  at  Ningpo. 
At  a comparatively  early  age  he  became  a Christian,  and  had 


RESULTS  OF  WORK  IN  OUT-STATIONS. 


373 


his  attention  directed  to  the  Gospel  ministry.  He  was  an 
earnest  student,  acquired  a familiar  knowledge  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  the  outlines  of  Christian  doctrine ; and,  after  years 
of  study  and  employment  as  a catechist,  he  was  in  1864  form- 
ally ordained  as  an  evangelist.  More  than  a year  since  he  was 
called  to  his  rest ; but  a church  of  eighty  members,  and  grate- 
ful and  cherished  memories  of  his  zeal,  wisdom,  love,  and 
faithfulness,  still  bear  testimony  tp  the  fact  that  he  was  an  in- 
strument chosen  of  God,  a workman  who  needed  not  to  be 
ashamed. 

During  the  first  stage  of  the  history  of  a mission  the  great- 
er proportion  of  the  converts  are  generally  males.  This  is 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  of  the  seclusion  of  females  in  China, 
the  comparatively  small  number  of  female  missionaries,  and 
the  employment  chiefly  of  males  as  servants  and  teachers. 
During  the  second  stage  of  progress,  when  the  work  of 
making  known  the  Gospel  falls  into  the  hands  of  natives,  the 
state  of  things  is  reversed.  In  every  age  and  country  there 
has  seemed  to  be  in  the  nature  of  woman  a peculiar  suscepti- 
bility to  religious  impressions,  and  a readiness  to  respond  to 
the  call  of  a.  Saviour’s  love.  In  China  converted  husbands 
have  often  been  the  means  of  bringing  their  wives  into  the 
church,  sons  their  mothers ; and  when  a native  preacher,  with 
a Christian  wife,  commences  his  work  at  an  out-station,  fe- 
male converts  generally  predominate  greatly. 

In  out-stations  conducted  by  natives,  the  most  effective 
method  of  building  up  a church  is  still  found,  to  be  that  of  la- 
boring for  and  with  individuals,  rather  than  random  preach- 
ing to  crowds.  When  a native  preacher  first  settles  in  a new 
station,  he  is  usually  regarded  with  much  suspicion  and  dis- 
like. His  enterprise  attracts  some  notice,  and  strangers,  in- 
fluenced by  curiosity,  make  him  a visit,  manifesting,  however, 
a distant  reserve.  Every  movement  is  carefully  watched  and 
weighed.  His  boldness  in  standing  up  alone  as  the  exponent 
of  a foreign  and  despised  religion,  coupled  with  a conciliating 
spirit  and  deference  to  others,  commands  respect ; his  meek- 


874 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


ness  and  self-control  under  opposition  and  rebuke  excite  sym- 
pathy; the  truth  which  he  utters  rivets  the  attention  of  some 
auditor,  sinks  deep  into  the  mind,  and  perhaps  awakens  an 
earnest  interest.  By  degrees,  in  answer  to  the  oft-repeated 
invitation  to  come  to  the  chapel,  he  has  the  pleasure  of  re- 
ceiving a few  visitors,  almost  always  from  the  poorer  and 
humbler  classes.  They  are  welcomed  and  entertained  as 
guests,  the  conversation  relating  to  general  as  well  as  religious 
topics.  These  visitors  are  very  apt  to  come  in  the  quiet  and 
leisure  of  the  evening.  While  they  sip  their  tea  and  smoke 
their  pipes,  many  subjects  relating  to  foreigners  and  foreign 
customs,  and  the  relations  of  the  native  teacher  to  the  foreign- 
ers, are  freely  discussed ; much  interesting,  novel,  and  impor- 
tant information  is  communicated ; and  from  these  social  in- 
terviews there  springs  up  a mutual  confidence  and  attachment. 
Before  the  visitors  take  their  leave,  they  are  told  of  the  cus- 
tom of  Christians  to  close  the  day  with  thanksgiving  and 
prayer  to  God,  and  are  invited  to  take  part  in  these  exercises. 
They  listen  with  mingled  feelings  of  curiosity  and  awe,  while 
the  Chinese  Christian  opens  with  reverence  the  volume  of 
God’s  word  and  speaks  of  Him  who  is  our  Father  in  heaven, 
and  has  sent  this  book  as  a precious  revelation  of  His  will  to 
His  loved  but  erring  children.  Perhaps  he  chooses  one  from 
the  parables  of  our  Saviour,  so  wonderfully  adapted  to  convey 
simple  truth  to  the  minds  of  the  uriinstructed,  and  unfolds  the 
meaning  of  those  precious  lessons  of  Him  who  spake  as  never 
man  spake.  Then  the  whole  company,  Christian  and  heathen, 
bow  together  in  the  worship  of  the  Great  Unseen.  To  one 
and  another  the  house  of  the  native  preacher  becomes  a favorite 
place  for  spending  the  evening,  and  in  these  evening  exercises 
much  religious  truth  is  gradually  imparted.  Some  of  these 
visitors  are  found  in  process  of  time  among  the  Sabbath  wor- 
shipers. By  degrees  their  eyes  open  to  the  light,  and  their 
hearts  to  receive  the  Lord  Jesus  as  their  Saviour  and  their 
King.  They  bring  with  them  others  in  whom  they  are  interest- 
ed, and  whom  they  can  influence.  Thus  the  work  grows.  A 


EVIDENCES  OF  ACTIVITY  AND  GROWTH.  875 

clmrch  is  established.  Living  men  and  women,  strong  in  the 
power  of  God’s  Spirit,  stand  up  to  do  battle  for  Christ.  A 
fountain  of  living  and  healing  waters  is  opened,  whose  influence 
shall  ever  continue  and  increase.  . 

The  whole  number  of  Protestant  native  Christians  in  China 
is  at  present  about  four  thousand.  These  are  to  be  found  in 
the  various  stations  along  the  coast — from  Canton,  in  the 
south,  to  Pekin,  in  the  north,  but  principally  in  the  “ five  treaty 
ports,”  which  have  been  occupied  about  twenty-five  years. 
Most  of  the  cities  opened  by  the  treaty  of  1860- have  also  their 
native  churches.  I do  not  know  of  a single  place  in  the  Chi- 
nese Empire  which  has  been  occupied  even  but  a few  years 
as  a missionary  station  which  has  not  at  present  a Christian 
church.  Indeed,  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a church  or 
Christian  community  in  the  West  which  has  increased  in  the 
same  ratio  as  the  Chinese  churches.  The  annual  report  of  the 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  for 
1868  shows  an  addition  during  the  last  year  of  one  hundred 
and  forty  persons  on  profession  of  their  faith  to  its  eleven 
churches  in  China,  which  is  more  than  one-tliird  of  the  mem- 
bership of  these  churches.  This  has  been  nearly  their  uniform 
rate  of  increase  for  several  years  past.  How  many  churches 
in  our  own  country  give  the  same  evidence  of  healthy  growth 
and  Christian  activity  ? 

To  refer  briefly  to  the  missions  with  which  I have  been 
personally  connected.  When  I reached  Ningpo  in  1854  we 
had  there  one  church,  numbering  about  twenty  members. 
These  were  mostly  from  the  city  of  Ningpo ; all  were  pecunia- 
rily dependent  upon  us ; we  had  hardly  a native  assistant,  and 
not  a single  out-station.  That  small  and  feeble  church  has 
grown  into  six  regularly  organized  churches,  with  an  aggre- 
gate membership  of  nearly  four  hundred  persons.  Several  of 
these  churches  are  situated  thirty,  fifty,  and  one  hundred  and 
twenty  miles  in  the  interior.  Of  the  additions  to  them  for 
several  years  past,  only  a very  small  proportion  has  any  pecun- 
iary connection  with  the  mission  whatever;  on  the  contrary, 


876 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


a large  majority  suffer  seriously  in  their  temporal  matters  by 
becoming  Christians.  In  connection  with  that  one  mission 
we  have  six  native  licentiates,  four  ordained  ministers,  and  an 
efficient  corps  pi  catechists,  Christian  teachers,  and  candidates 
for  the  ministry.  The  most  of  the  preaching  and  the  pastor- 
al work  is  now  performed  by  natives,  and  our  depleted  band 
of  foreign  missionaries  have  almost  more  than  they  can  do  to 
superintend  the  work  of  natives,  and  instruct  candidates  for 
the  ministry.  The  Chinese  have  proved  themselves  efficient 
laborers  and  church  officers,  and  are  generally  disposed  to  con- 
tribute liberally  of  their  means  to  support  their  own  Chris- 
tian institutions.  Since  my  arrival  in  the  United  States  I have 
received  a letter  from  the  native  pastor  of  the  church  of  Yu- 
yiao,  in  which  he  says,  “ Every  member  of  this  church,  man, 
woman,  and  child,  gives  something  for  the  cause  of  Christ. 
Most  have  adopted  the  rule  of  giving  one-tenth  of  all  their 
earnings  or  income,  and  some,  not  content  with  this  proportion, 
give  one  fifth.”  None  of  the  members  of  this  church  are  rich, 
and  most  of  them  are  very  poor.  If  Christians  at  home 
should  adopt  the  same  standard  of  giving,  there  would  be  no 
want  of  funds  to  carry  on  the  benevolent  enterprises  of  the 
Church.  May  I not  add,  How  can  we  justify  the  adoption  of 
any  lower  standard  by  the  teachings  of  either  the  Old  or  the 
New  Testament? 

In  1861 1 was  engaged,  together  with  Mr.  Gayley,  who  died 
of  cholera  the  next  year,  and  Mr.  Danforth,  who  was  obliged 
to  return  home  on  account  of  illness  about  the  same  time,  in 
establishing  a mission  on  the  promontory  of  Shantung.  Here, 
though  we  commenced  our  work  anew  from  the  very  founda- 
tion, we  were  permitted  to  receive  converts  into  the  church 
the  first  year ; and  we  now  have,  as  the  result  of  the  first  sev- 
en years  of  labor  of  only  three  missionary  families,  two  prom- 
ising native  churches,  one  at  Tung-chow,  and  the  other  at  Che- 
foo ; each  having  a membership  numbering  more  than  thirty, 
and  comprising  several  persons  who  give  promise  of  being  very 
useful  as  native  helpers.  In  Tung-chow,  the  missionaries  of 


RELIGIOUS  AWAKENING  IN  LAO-LING.  377 

the  Southern  Baptist  Board,  one  of  whom,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Hart- 
well, preceding  us-by  several  months  in  taking  up  his  residence 
there,  has  met  with  equal  success. 

While  in  most  places  the  work  goes  on  quietly,  gradually, 
and  uniformly,  God  has  shown  us  that  he  is  able  and  willing 
to  bring  about  more  general  and  rapid  movements,  and  is  re- 
proving us  for  our  want  of  faith  in  not  praying  for,  and  ex- 
pecting greater  blessings.  There  have  been  several  earnest 
religious  awakenings  in  different  parts  of  China  North  and 
South.  One  which  has  recently  taken  place  in  the  villages  of 
Lao-ling,  near  the  northern  border  of  the  province  of  Shantung, 
is  worthy  of  special  notice.  This  place  is  about  two  hundred 
miles  from  any  mission  station,  and  had  never  been  visited  by 
a foreign  missionary.  About  two  years  since,  an  old  man  liv- 
ing there,  during  a severe  illness,  was  deeply  impressed  by  a 
singular  dream,  suggested,  perhaps,  by  serious  thoughts  of 
death  and  eternity ; or  should  we  not  rather  say,  by  the  Holy 
Spirit,  in  connection  with  natural  anxieties  with  regard  to  a 
future  life  ? He  thought  he  was  conveyed  to  a most  beauti- 
ful place  which  he  denominated  the  “ heavenly  palace,”  and 
saw  within  it  its  happy  inhabitants.  Being  desirous  of  en- 
tering himself,  he  was  restrained  by  a guide  or  attendant,  who 
directed  his  attention  to  his  filthy  garments,  and  his  unfitness 
for  entering  such  a pure  and  holy  place.  He  awoke  much 
distressed,  and  very  anxious  to  obtain  information  as  to  how 
he  could  be  prepared  for  admittance  to  this  “ heavenly  palace,” 
which  even  then  he  regarded  as  a reality.  He  was  advised  by 
a friend  to  make  a journey  to  Tien-tsin  as  soon  as  he  should 
be  able  to  do  so,  to  seek  information  from  Roman  Catholic 
missionaries  who  were  known  to  be  residing  there.  After  a 
tedious  journey  he  reached  the  city,  and  inquired  in  the  street 
for  some  teacher  who  could  tell  him  of  the  “ heavenly  palace.” 
He  was  directed  to  a Protestant  chapel,  where  he  heard  the 
preacher  discoursing  upon  the  text  “ Blessed  are  the  pure  in 
heart,  for  they  shall  see  God.”  He  felt  at  once  that  the  pres- 
ence of  God  was  the  glorious  heavenly  palace,  and  that  im- 


378 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


purity  of  heart  was  that  which  constituted  his  unfitness  for  it. 
He  was  cordially  received  by  the  missionaries  of  the  English 
Methodist  Church,  and  heard  from  them  the  truth  as  it  is  in 
Jesus.  After  a time  he  returned  home,  rejoicing  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  Gospel  and  a Christian  life,  and  taking  with 
him  the  Bible  and  Christian  tracts.  His  testimony  and  teach- 
ings awakened  a general  religious  interest  in  the  community 
where  he  lived,  and  he  soon  made  a second  journey  to  Tien- 
tsin, asking  for  a native  preacher  to  return  with  him  to  in- 
struct his  people  in  the  ways  of  God  more  perfectly.  When 
a native  preacher  had  labored  there  for  several  months,  the 
place  was  visited  by  two  foreign  missionaries,  who,  after  a 
careful  examination  of  applicants  for  church  membership,  ad- 
ministered the  rite  of  baptism  to  about  forty  persons.  This 
was  about  one  year  after  the  first  appearance  of  the  old  man 
in  Tien-tsin.  The  work  has  since  been  steadily  progressing ; 
and  more  than  one  hundred  persons  have  been  received  into 
the  Church.  The  interest  is  spreading  into  adjoining  vil- 
lages, the  inhabitants  of  which  are  asking  for  religious  teachers 
and  providing  places  for  worship.  These  Christians  in  the 
interior  have  already  met  with  opposition  and  persecution, 
but  they  have  stood  firm,  and  have  not  denied  the  faith.  The 
work  seems  to  be  deep  and  thorough.  The  Sabbath  is  strict- 
ly observed,  and  the  converts  are  growing  in  grace  and  knowl- 
edge. 

What  encouragement  do  such  facts  as  these  give  us  to 
pray  for  a general  outpouring  of  God’s  Spirit  upon  the  nations  ! 
There  is,  as  far  as  I am  aware,  nothing  peculiar  in  the  charac- 
ter of  the  villages  of  Lao-ling,  and  there  is  no  good  reason 
why  similar  scenes  may  not  be  witnessed  in  any  part  of  Chi- 
na. We  need  more  faith,  more  zeal,  more  love,  and  more  self- 
sacrificing  labor  to  gather  in  the  rich  harvest.  Much  has  al- 
ready been  accomplished  which  we  ought  gratefully  to  ac- 
knowledge ; but  the  work  is  only  begun. 


CHARACTER  OF  NATIVE  CHRISTIANS. 


.379 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

CHARACTER  AND  EXPERIENCES  OP  NATIVE  CHRISTIANS  A.ND 
INQUIRERS. 

Comparative  Absence  of  pungent  Convictions  of  Sin  in  Chinese  Converts, 
and  a Reason  for  it. — The  Apathy  of  the  Chinese  with  Respect  to  Death 
is  removed  by  a Knowledge  of  Christianity.— Experience  of  Teacher 
Du. — Disadvantages  and  Compensations  in  the  Condition  of  Chinese 
Christians. — Their  Simplicity  of  Faith. — Their  Views  of  Prayer. — Go- 
ing up  into  a Mountain  to  pray. — Mercenary  Inquirers. — “Stony- 
ground”  Hearers. — Disappointed  Expectations. — The  Buddhist  Devo- 
tee of  Tsi-hia. — The  Case  of  one  who  was  almost  persuaded  to  be  a 
Christian. — Temptations  and  Defections  of  Church  Members. — Differ- 
ences and  Estrangements  among  Christians. — Temptations  overruled 
for  Good. — Experience  of  two  Native  Preachers. — Difference  of  Views 
with  Reference  to  the  Admission  of  Inquirers  to  full  Church  Member- 
ship.— Cases  of  Discipline,  and  their  comparative  Frequency. — Trials 
and  Temptations  of  Native  Christians. — Eating  Food  offered  to  Idols. — 
Complicity  with^  Idol  Worship  in  other  Ways. — Difficulties  connected 
with  the  strict  Observance  of  the  Sabbath. — Experience  of  Dco-vu  Ab- 
sent.— Standard  of  Sabbath  Observance  in  our  Out-stations. — The  His- 
tory and  Character  of  J un-Kao. 

While  the  Spirit  of  Gocl,  operating  in  and  through  His 
W ord,  always  produces  the  same  general  results,  the  religious 
life  and  experience  of  Christians  in  China  are  marked  by  some 
characteristic  features  which  naturally  grow  out  of  their  pe- 
culiar condition  and  circumstances. 

One  of  these  peculiarities  which  was  often  brought  before 
my  mind  during  seven  years  of  pastoral  supervision  and  fre- 
quent examinations  of  candidates  for  baptism,  occasioned  me 
for  a time  .some  solicitude  and  doubt.  This  was  the  gen- 
eral absence  of  those  pungent  convictions  of  sin  which  so  fre- 
quently, though  not  necessarily,  are  connected  with  conver- 
sions in  our  own  country.  I have-  accounted  for  this  fact 


380 


CHINA  AND  TITE  CHINESE. 


satisfactorily  to  my  own  mind  in  the  following  manner.  The 
Chinese,  when  enlightened  by  God’s  Spirit  and  made  acquaint- 
ed with  their  true  moral  character  and  relations  to  God,  do 
not  feel  that  they  are  sinners  to  the  same  extent  and  degree 
as  we  do,  simply  because  they  are  not.  They  sin  in  a great 
measure  through  ignorance ; we  against  light  and  knowledge. 
When  a person  of  mature  years  in  Christian  lands  is  con- 
vinced “of  sin,  of  righteousness,  and  of  judgment,”  and  looks 
back  over  perhaps  a score  or  two  of  wasted  years,  memory 
brings  up  with  appalling  distinctness,  time  after  time,  when 
he  has  stilled  the  warnings  of  conscience ; steeled  his  heart 
against  convictions  of  duty ; done  despite  unto  the  Spirit  of 
grace  ; turned  a deaf  ear  to  the  invitations  of  a preached  Gos- 
pel; and  perhaps  to  a mother’s  prayers  and  pleadings  and 
tears ; and  trampled  under  foot  the  blood  of  the  Son  of  God. 
These  facts,  when  practically  apprehended  and  felt,  present 
an  array  of  guilt  from  which  the  awakened  conscience  may 
well  start  back  with  dread  and  apprehension.  Not  so  with 
theAeathen  Chinese.  They  wonder  at  their  stupidity  in  hav- 
ing worshiped  as  gods  the  workmanship  of  their  own  hands, 
and  been  blind  to  the  evidences  which  their  senses  and  their 
consciousness  furnish  of  the  presence  and  universal  provi- 
dence of  an  unseen  God ; but  they  say,  and  say  truly,  in  the 
matter  of  religious  worship,  “ I did  as  I was  taught  from  in- 
fancy, and  had  no  knowledge  of  the  true  God  and  the  better 
way.”  They  soon  learn,  however,  the  lesson  of  the  sinfulness 
of  their  nature,  and  their  weakness  and  imperfections ; and 
their  humble  confessions  of  sin  and  remissness  in  duty  and  ill- 
desert  show  that,  when  once  they  become  Christians,  their  re- 
ligious experience  runs  parallel  with  that  of  others. 

That  the  peculiarity  above  mentioned  is  due  to  circum- 
stances and  education,  rather  than  to  any  difference  of  race 
or  mental  constitution,  is  evident  from  the  effect  of  religious 
knowledge  and  training  upon  the  mental  exercises  and  relig- 
ious feelings  of  the  people.  Young  men  trained  in  Christian 
schools,  who  become  Christians  in  after  life,  present  the  same 


A MARKED  EFFECT  OF  CHRISTIAN  KNOWLEDGE.  381 

phases  of  religious  experience  which,  are  generally  known 
among  us.  An  intellectual  knowledge  of  Christianity  produces 
a thorough  change  in  the  religious  feelings  even  of  those  who 
are  unwilling  to  embrace  it.  I have  known  several  illustra- 
tions of  this  fact,  one  of  which  I will  mention.  The  person 
whom  I first  employed  in  Ningpo  to  teach  my  wife  and  my- 
self the  vernacular  of  that  place  was  a pleasing  and  interest- 
ing man  of  the  family  name  Du,  between  whom  and  us  there 
sprang  up  a strong  attachment.  He  expressed  his  belief  in 
the  truths  of  Christianity ; always  spoke  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion Avith  great  respect,  and  could  hardly  read  the  story  of 
our  Saviour’s  sufferings  and  death  without  showing  deep 
feeling.  lie  felt,  however,  that  it  was  impracticable  and  im- 
possible for  one  in  his  circumstances,  and  with  his  associations 
in  life,  to  become  a Christian.  When  he  had  been  with  us  a 
little  more  than  a year,  I heard  on  my  return  from  an  itinera- 
ting tour  that  he  was  very  ill.  Going  to  his  house,  I met  his 
son  at  the  door — a bright,  intelligent  lad  of  about  nineteen, 
an  earnest  student,  and  ambitious  of  literary  preferment. 
He  seemed  more  surprised  than  pleased  to  see  me ; and  told 
me  that  his  father  was  alarmingly  ill,  and  was  not  himself; 
that  his  mind  wandered,  and  he  talked  incoherently.  Enter- 
ing his  room,  I soon  found  that  the  evidences  (to  the  son’s 
mind)  of  mental  aberration  were,  as  I had  inferred  from  his 
statement,  of  such  a character  as  to  give  occasion  for  rejoicing 
rather  than  sorrow.  Those  lips  from  which  I had  learned 
that  language,  almost  as  dear  to  me  as  my  mother-tongue,  were 
speaking  for  the  first  time  the  “ language  of  Canaan.”  He 
said  to  me,  “ This  disease  generally  proves  fatal,  and  I feel 
that  it  will  be  so  in  my  case.  I have  been  a great  sinner. 
I ought  long  ago  to  have  obeyed  the  commands  and  taken  up 
the  cross  of  Christ.  During  the  last  three  days,  while  my 
family,  contrary  to  my  -wishes,  have  been  chanting  Buddhist 
prayers,  burning  incense,  and  worshiping  idol  gods  and  evil 
spirits,  I have  constantly  been  praying  to  Jesus  ; and  last  night 
Jesus  heard  mf  prayer  and  sent  me  an  answer  in  peace.  He 


382 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


knows  me,  and  I knou?  Him.”  His  conversation  was  perfect- 
ly rational,  but  bis  feelings  were  entirely  unintelligible  to  bis 
heathen  family  and  friends.  The  Chinese  generally  view 
death  with  apathy  and  stoical  indifference.  It  is  not  un- 
common for  old  people  to  profess  to  desire  and  long  for  it ; 
saying  that  life  has  no  attractions,  and  that  it  is  time  for 
them  to  die.  They  expect  to  go  to  the  land  of  spirits,  and 
after  a time  to  return  to  inhabit  another  body ; and  they  sim- 
ply resign  themselves  to  their  fate  and  take  their  chances. 
If  they  are  filled  with  alarm,  it  is  from  the  conviction  that 
they  are  suffering  the  inflictions  of  demons  or  evil  spirits. 
It  was  the  knowledge  of  God,  to  .whose  character  belongs  the 
attribute  of  inflexible  justice  as  well  as  infinite  love,  and  the 
knowledge  of  the  fixed  and  unending  state  of  the  redeemed 
and  the  lost,  which  gave  rise  in  Du’s  mind  to  those  new  and 
strange  exercises  and  anxieties,  and  to  those  importunate  cries 
to  “ the  only  name  given  under  heaven  whereby  we  must  be 
saved.”  I can  not  but  hope  that  those  cries  and  prayers  were 
answered,  and  that  from  that  room,  filled  with  the  symbols  of 
idolatry  and  superstition,  a soul  went  up  to  join  the  company 
of  the  redeemed  around  the  throne  of  God.  I offered  to 
bear  all  the  expenses  of  the  funeral  if  the  family  would  con- 
sent to  have  Du  buried  with  Christian  rites,  but  the  offer  was 
refused.  I could  mention  several  other  persons  who  have 
been  employed  by  foreigners  as  teachers,  whose  death-beds 
were  marked  with  the  same  anxieties  and  forebodings,  but 
not  with  the  same  hope. 

The  circumstances  under  which  native  Christians  are 
placed  in  China  are  attended  with  peculiar  trials  and  priva- 
tions, and  also  with  their  compensations.  They  are  in  a great 
measure  without  a Christian  literature,  but,  for  this  very  rea- 
son, give  more  attention  to  the  study  of  the  pure  Word  of 
God.  Scattered  among  a heathen  population,  they  are  drawn 
closer  to  each  other  in  Christian  sympathy  and  love.  The 
trials,  opposition,  and  persecution  to  which  they  are  subject, 
have  the  effect  of  keeping  false  prolessors  ouj^of  the  Church, 


INTERESTING  TRAITS. 


883 


and  developing  and  strengthening  the  character  of  true  be- 
lievers. 

Their  lives  are  often  marked  by  a beautiful  unquestioning 
faith.  There  are  few  doubting  Christians ; they  have  not  yet 
reached  the  point  of  skeptical  misgivings.  To  them  there 
seems  little  room  for  doubt.  They  have  set  before  them  in 
bold  contrast  the  reasonable,  consistent,  and  soul-satisfying 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  the  confused,  baseless,  and  irrec- 
oncilable teachings  of  idolatry.  They  feel  and  know  that  they 
have  passed  from  darkness  to  light ; “ Old  things  are  passed 
away,  and  all  things  are  become  new.” 

Their  prayers  have  often  a practical  and  child-like  simplic- 
ity. I have  frequently  heard  them  relate  remarkable  instances 
of  deliverances,  and  providential  interferences,  and  recovery 
from  serious  sickness  and  disease,  in  direct  answer  to  prayer. 
I have  hardly  ever  known  a Chinese  Christian  who  has  man- 
ifested any  indisposition  or  inability  to  take  a part  in  social 
prayer-meetings.  These  peculiarities  are  principally  due,  it  is 
to  be  hoped,  to  genuine  piety  and  simple  faith,  but  they  may 
also  result  in  part  from  their  old  habits  and  associations. 
They  have  all  been  accustomed  to  worship  idols  in  the  pres- 
ence of  others  without  shame  or  hesitation ; and  shall  they  be 
ashamed  or  backward,  when  they  know  it  is  their  privilege  to 
do  so,  to  worship  the  true  God  ? They  have  been  accustomed 
to  include  in  their  petitions  to  false  gods  a great  variety  of 
matters  connected  with  their  every-day  life,  some  of  them 
comparatively  trivial ; and  shall  they  not  bring  before  their 
omniscient,  loving  Heavenly  Father  all  <ttieir  cares  and  sor- 
rows, when  they  are  encouraged  and  commanded  to  do  so  ? 

A beautiful  instance  of  faith  and  earnestness  in  prayer 
occurred  not  long  since  in  the  province  of  Shantung.  Dur- 
ing a season  of  great  suffering  from  drought,  when  the  peo- 
ple were  everywhere  thronging  the  temples  and  praying  to  va- 
rious deities  for  relief,  a few  native  Christians  who  had  but 
recently  been  received  into  the  Church,  and  lived  in  the  coun- 
try at  a considerable  distance  from  their  foreign  teacher,  met 


384 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


together  to  consult  as  to  what  they  should  do.  They  felt  not 
only  pained  but  rebuked  by  seeing  their  heathen  countrymen 
worshiping  gods  which  were  no  gods,  while  they  had  neglect- 
ed to  offer  up  their  earnest  and  united  prayers  to  Him  who 
controls  the  elements  of  nature,  and  sends  rain  on  the  just  and 
on  the  unjust.  Without  advice,  hint,  or  suggestion  from  any 
one  else,  they  determined  to  go  up  into  a mountain  and  spend 
the  whole  night  in  prayer  to  God ; influenced,  perhaps,  by  the 
recorded  example  of  our  Saviour,  or  possibly  by  the  example 
of  Elijah  under  circumstances  similar  to  their  own.  The  next 
day,  before  those  who  lived  at  the  greatest  distance  from  the 
hill  had  reached  their  home,  they  were  overtaken  by  a copious 
shower. 

I am  reminded  that  I may  be  giving  to  the  reader  too  fa- 
vorable an  opinion  of  the  Christian  character  of  Chinese  con- 
verts, and  too  bright  a coloring  to  our  fnissionary  experiences. 
It  is  natural  and  right  to  dwell  with  delight  and  wonder  on 
the  “ plants  of  righteousness  ” springing  up  in  heathen  wastes, 
unfolding  into  life  and  beauty,  and  bearing  fruit  to  the  glory 
of  God.  But  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  enemy  sows  tares,  and 
God’s  servants  are  often  sorely  tried. 

Not  a few  of  the  natives  who  have  no  means  of  livelihood, 
and  no  social  position  to  lose,  and  are  wholly  ignorant  of  the 
character  and  inquisitions  of  Christianity,  apply  for  baptism 
from  mere  mercenary  motives.  The  withdrawal  of  such  per- 
sons from  us,  if  they  continue  to  show  no  regard  for  the  Gos- 
pel except  as  a means  to  a worldly  end,  occasions  us  compara- 
tively little  regret.*  m 

There  are  many  others  who  are  honestly  and  deeply  im- 
pressed by  the  truth,  and  desirous  and  determined  for  a time 
to  be  Christians.  These  are  the  stony-ground  hearers  of  the 
parable,  who  receive  the  word  with  joy,  and  endure  for  a sea- 
son, but  in  time  of  persecution  fall  away.  It  is  one  of  the 
principal  trials  of  the  missionary  to  see  the  zeal  of  these  grow 
cold,  until,  one  after  another,  they  walk  no  more  with  us. 

There  are  others  who  seem  willing  to  endure  trials  appar- 


DISAPPOINTED  HOPES. 


385 


ently  from  love  to  Christ,  and,  through  much  difficulty,  reach 
the  very  door  of  the  church,  when  the  adversary,  as  if  by  a vi- 
olent assault,  drags  them  back  to  the  world,  and  they  become 
our  enemies.  These  cases  occasion  a disappointment  like  that 
felt  by  the  husbandman  when  his  luxuriant  fields,  just  ripe  for 
the  harvest,  are  prostrated  and  desolated  by  the  hail  and  tem- 
pest. Such  instances  stand  out  with  painful  distinctness  in 
the  lives  of  most  missionaries. 

I well  l’emember  the  case  of  a noted  Buddhist  devotee  in 
the  district  of  Tsi-hia,  in  the  province  of  Shantung,  who  was 
regarded  with  great  veneration  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  sur- 
rounding country.  He  spent  most  of  his  time  in  a sitting 
posture,  engaged,  as  it  was  supposed,  in  religious  meditation 
and  prayer.  He  lived  on  a purely  vegetable  diet,  and,  it  was 
believed,  on  almost  nothing.  Pie  had  a great  influence  over 
the  people,  being  regarded  by  them  almost  as  an  incarnation 
of  Buddha,  and  the  personification  of  holiness.  He  was  visit- 
ed several  times  by  our  native  catechists,  and  seemed  to  evince 
a real  desire  after  religious  knowledge  and  happiness  in  the  fu- 
ture state,  and  confessed  that  his  religion  and  mode  of  life 
were  not  altogether  satisfactory  to  him.  After  several  con- 
versations, he  consented  to  read  religious  books,  and  was  much 
interested  in  them.  By  degrees  he  became  convinced  of  the 
truth  of  Christianity,  and  expressed  a desire  to  be  a Chris- 
tian. During  one  of  the  visits  of  our  catechists  he  went  so  far 
as  to  take  down  his  idols  from  their  shrines,  remove  his  pict- 
ures of  gods  and  goddesses  from  the  walls  of  his  sanctum,  and 
to  eat  meat  with  his  guests ; thus  formally  renouncing  his  faith, 
and  repudiating  the  merit  which  it  was  supposed  he  had  ac- 
quired by  his  austere  life.  We  began  to  hope  that  he  would 
soon  declare  himself  a Christian,  and  prove  a “ chosen  instru- 
ment ” for  preaching  the  Gospel  to  the  thousands  whom  he 
had  “ bewitched  with  his  sorceries,”  and  who  had  looked  up 
to  him  as  a religious  oracle.  A time  was  appointed  for  him 
to  make  a visit  to  Tung-chow,  where  he  was  to  be  my  guest 
with  a view  to  further  instruction  in  preparation  for  receiv- 

R 


386 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


ing  Christian  baptism.  To  our  surprise,  he  suddenly  changed 
his  plans,  influenced  we  know  not  by  what  motives,  and  went 
back  to  his  old  course  of  life,  representing  us  as  deceivers 
and  seducers,  and  himself  as  having  been  almost  led  away  and 
ruined  by  us.  Here  again  the  adversary  triumphed,  and  our 
hopes  were  blasted. 

I find  recorded  in  my  journal,  with  a good  deal  of  detail, 
the  history  of  another  case  in  which  I was  greatly  interested  ; 
and  notwithstanding  its  disproportionate  length  in  such  a 
chapter  as  this,  I will  give  Jhe  greater  part  of  it,  as  it  illus- 
trates many  points  of  Chinese  character  and  social  life,  as  well 
as  missionary  experience,  which  I could  not  present  so  clearly 
in  any  other  way. 

“ Tung-chow,  Jan.  14, 1862. — My  teacher  Suen  is  in  a very 
interesting  state  of  mind ; and  the  dealings  of  God  with  him 
have  been  of  such  a character  that  I wish  to  make  a record 
of  them. 

“ Being  very  desirous  of  employing  a finished  Chinese  schol- 
ar who  could  assist  me  in  preparing  books  for  the  press,  I 
made  it  a special  subject  of  prayer  on  coming  here  that  I 
might  obtain  such  a one.  I first  saw  Suen  about  the  1st  of 
September  in  the  chapel  at  Mr.  Gayley’s.  He  came  in  with  a 
company  of  well-dressed  young  men,  all  appearing  remarka- 
bly well-bred  and  intelligent.  I was  particularly  struck  with 
Suen’s  quickness, and  polite,  easy  manners.  When  he  left  the 
chapel,  I had  little  idea  that  I should  see  him  again.  More 
than  a month  after  Tsao  told  me  that  a very  respectable  and 
gentlemanly  scholar  had  offered  his  services  as  a Mandarin 
teacher.  When  he  made  his  appearance,  I recognized  the 
same  Mr.  Suen  whom  I had  seen  in  the  chapel.  He,  with  his 
family,  had  left  Tai-nganfu,  where  he  had  been  employed  in 
the  yamun  of  a relative,  and  came  to  this  place  to  get  away 
from  the  rebels.  I told  him.  that  the  wages  which  we  are  in 
the  habit  of  giving  teachers  would  not  be  sufficient  to  sup- 
port his  family ; but  I would  be  glad  to  have  him  while  he 
was  without  other  employment,  and  that  when  he  could  ob- 


TRIALS  OF  A CHINESE  SCHOLAR. 


387 


tain  a move  lucrative  position,  I would  expect  him  to  leave  me 
to  avail  himself  of  it.  At  first  he  regarded  Christianity  as 
differing  little  from  Buddhism,  and  evidently  had  no  great  re- 
spect for  it  or  its  adherents.  While  we  were  revising  a book 
for  the  press  (the  ‘Native  Assistant’s  Guide’),  I saw  that  he 
was  much  struck  with  some  thoughts  contained  in  it,  and  his 
curiosity  and  interest  were  quite  apparent.  From  this  time 
he  always  seemed  pleased  to  converse  on  the  subject  of 
Christianity  in  a general  way,  and  rapidly  acquired  correct 
ideas  of  it. 

“About  three  weeks  ago  I presented  to  him  the  subject  of 
his  practical  interest  in  the  Gospel,  and  pressed  upon  him  the 
importance  of  giving  it  his  most  earnest  consideration,  and  se- 
curing for  himself  the  benefits  which  it  offered.  He  frankly 
told  me  that  his  mind  was  full  of  doubts,  and  that  he  even 
doubted  the  veracity  of  the  Christian  revelation.  I saw,  how- 
ever, that  he  was  more  interested  than  he  was  willing  to  ac- 
knowledge. After  a long  conversation  he  left  me.  It  was  ev- 
ident that  a clear  apprehension  of  the  truth  had  aroused  both 
his  sense  of  responsibility  and  the  natural  opposition  of  his 
heart. 

“When  he  came  the  next  day  he  told  me  that  he  had  thought 
all  night  on  the  subject  we  had  talked  about,  and  that,  the 
more  he  thought,  the  more  his  doubts  and  difficulties  increased. 
I requested  him  to  write  them  out  and  let  me  see  them.  This 
he  promised  to  do.  As  he  brought  his  papers  from  day  to 
day,  I said  nothing  in  reply,  as  I wished  him  first  to  express 
frdfcly  all  he  had  to  say.  Before  he  had  finished  writing, 
however,  one  of  his  papers  was  so  blasphemous  that  I told 
him,  that  while  I wished  him  to  use  the  utmost  frankness, 
presenting  every  thing  without  reserve,  he  must  a*t  least  speak 
of  the  name  of  Christ  with  respect,  remembering  that  he  him- 
self might  some  day  find  that  he  had  been  sinning  against  the 
Majesty  of  heaven  and  earth.  His  objections  as  thus  enu- 
merated amounted  to  twenty  in  number;  and  indicated  a 
thinking  mind,  and  close  a]iplication  and  study.  I occupied 


38S 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


tliree  clays  in  answering  them.  It  was  evident  that  his  intel- 
lect was  satisfied  as  far  as  most  of  them  were  concerned.  He 
was  now  becoming  intensely  interested ; still  he  did  no?  re- 
gard himself  as  an  inquirer,  nor  did  I address  him  as  such. 
As  many  of  his  difficulties  resolved  themselves  into  doubts  of 
the  divine  origin  and  truthfulness  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  I 
urged  him  to  read  carefully  several  chapters  in  the  ‘ Tien  tao 
su  yuen  ’*  on  this  subject.  The  next  day  he  said  that  he  had 
read  these  chapters,  and  that  after  our  conversations,  the 
truths  presented  in  them  appeared  in  a new  light.  He  had 
read  the  book  through  carefully  before,  but  could  not  under- 
stand it ; now  it  was,  as  it  were,  a new  book.  He  said,  how- 
ever, that  he  had  met  with  another  difficulty ; that  he  could 
not  believe  in  the  resurrection  of  the  dead ; that  it  could  not 
be  that  the  Bible  taught  such  a dogma,  and  we  must  have 
misinterpreted  it.  I told  him  it  was  one  of  the  most  clearly 
revealed  doctrines  in  the  Scriptures,  and  read  with  him  care- 
fully our  Lord’s  reasonings  with  the  Sadducees,  and  the  15th 
chapter  of  1st  Corinthians.  The  most  of  the  day  was  spent 
in  conversations  relating  to  these  fundamental  but  mysterious 
doctrines  of  Christianity.  He  listened  with  fixed  attention, 
and  was  much  impressed,  though  he  said  but  little.  At  this 
time  his  mind  was  opened  to  the  beauty  and  power  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  he  had  evidently  £ tasted  of  the  word  of  God.’ 
For  several  days  subsequent  to  this  we  read  the  Scriptures 
regularly.  Pie  now  had  little  interest  in  any  thing  but  relig- 
ious subjects,  and  studying  the  Bible  was  no  irksome  task. 
The  righteousness  of  God  by  faith,  as  presented  in  the  €rst 
part  of  Romans,  struck  him  with  great  power.  It  was  evi- 
dent, from  his  conversation,  that  he  was  spending  all  his  leisure 
time  at  hohne  in  reading  the  Scriptures  and  other  religious 
books,  and  that  he  was  making  rapid  advances  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  divine  things. 

“ I had  not  as  yet  said  much  to  him  about  the  practical  du- 
ties of  Christianity,  for  he  would  not  acknowledge  his  belief 
* A work  on  the  “ Evidences  of  Christianity,”  by  Rev.  W.  A.  P.  Martin. 


GROWING  CONVICTIONS  OF  THE  TRUTH. 


389 


in  the  existence  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  nor  of  Satan,  nor  in  the 
reasonableness  and  efficacy  of  prayer,  nor  in  Scripture  views 
of  sin,  nor  in  the  justice  of  God’s  plan  for  saving  sinners.  I 
was  satisfied,  however,  that  his  heart  was  sufficiently  enlight- 
ened to  furnish  the  ground  for  a direct  appeal  to  his  sense  of 
duty  and  obligation,  and  urged  him  immediately  to  submit 
himself  to  God,  and  to  attend  earnestly  to  things  which  relate 
to  his  eternal  peace.  Four  days  ago  I reminded  him  that  this 
was  probably  the  turning-point  in  his  life,  and  would  deter- 
mine his  weal  or  woe  for  time  and  eternity,  and  affect  the 
condition  not  only  of  himself  but  of  his  family.  I told  him 
that  God  was  calling  him  by  his  Spirit,  and  that  he  must  now 
decide  the  question  for  himself,  whether  he  would  serve  God 
or  Satan.  I told  him  further  that  I was  exceedingly  anxious 
about  him,  since  he  could  not  long  remain  in  his  present  posi- 
tion, as  he  must  either  advance  or  recede.  I urged  him  to 
commence  immediately  the  practice  of  private  prayer,  to  sub- 
mit himself  to  God,  and  enter  with  Him  into  a solemn  cove- 
nant to  be  His  forever. 

“ When  Suen  came  yesterday,  he  seemed  more  depressed 
than  ever.  He  was  not  disjiosed  to  say  much,  but  appeared 
pleased  to  have  me  talk  on  religious  subjects.  I was  very 
greatly  encouraged  by  some  incidental  remarks  which  gave 
evidence  that  he  felt  not  only  an  interest  in,  but  a love  for  the 
truth.  He  remarked  once  with  earnestness,  ‘ Oh,  if  my  coun- 
try as  a whole  would  embrace  Christianity,  it  would  be  bless- 
ed indeed  !’  We  spent  an  unusual  proportion  of  the  day  in 
talking  on  religious  subjects.  When  he  left  me,  I feared  that 
I had  said  too  much,  and  that  I might  have  given  a wrong  di- 
rection to  his  thoughts,  or  in  some  way  interfered  with  the 
work  which  it  was  evident  that  God’s  Spirit  was  carrying  on  in 
his  mind.  I determined  to-day  to  spend  the  time  usually  em- 
ployed in  conversation  in  reading  the  Scriptures,  leaving  the 
Holy  Spirit  to  apply  the  truth  in  His  own  way. 

“ This  morning  when  I opened  the  Bible  to  read  I saw 
that  he  had  something  to  say.  Taking  a long  breath,  he  com- 


390 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


menced  the  conversation  in  these  words : ‘ These  few  days 
Satan  and  the  Holy  Spirit  are  struggling  in  my  heart.  Some- 
thing says,  “ The  Gospel  is  false ; have  nothing  to  do  with 
it;”  and  something  says,  “ It  is  true  ; you  must  not  reject  it.” 
Sometimes  I have  harsh  thoughts  of  God,  and  feel  that  he  has 
treated  me  unjustly ; and  again  I think  that  I am  indebted  to 
him  for  many  blessings.’  I asked  him  in  what  respect  he 
sometimes  thought  God  had  been  unjust  to  him.  lie  replied, 
‘ My  ancestors  for  several  generations  have  been  officers ; of 
my  fellow-students  in  early  life,  many  who  are  not  at  all  su- 
perior to  me  in  talents  and  acquirements  now  occupy  high 
positions  of  rank  and  affluence,  while  I have  been  frustrated 
in  all  my  schemes,  and  disappointed  in  all  my  hopes.’  I an- 
swered, ‘ God  has  been  better  to  you  than  you  think,  and  has 
done  more  for  you  than  you  desired.  He  has  hedged  up  all 
ways  but  one  ; that  way  is  now  opened  before  you,  and  God’s 
Spirit  is  beckoning  you  to  enter ; not  to  obtain  the  short-lived 
honors  and  pleasures  of  this  life,  but  the  gift  of  eternal  life 
and  blessedness.’  He  replied, 4 There  are  many  hinderances  to 
my  becoming  a Christian.’  I asked  him  to  name  them.  He 
drew  a paper  from  his  pocket,  on  which  he  had  them  written. 
It  reads  as  follows  : 

“ £ (1.)  My  old  mother  is  opposed  to  my  being  a Christian. 
(2.)  I can  not  bear  to  give  up  the  reverence  which  the  cus- 
toms of  my  country  require  me  to  pay  to  ancestors.  (3.)  I 
dread  the  scorn  of  my  former  associates,  who  will  say  that, 
having  failed  in  my  former  plans,  I became  a Christian  be- 
cause I could  not  do  any  better.  (4.)  My  becoming  a Chris- 
tian will  cut  me  off  from  sympathy  with  my  former  acquaint- 
ances, as  St.  James  says,  ‘ “ The  friendship  of  the  world  is 
enmity  with  God.”  ’ (5.)  If  I become  a Christian,  I know  of 

no  way  by  which  I can  honestly  and  consistently,  with  the 
teachings  of  the  Bible,  support  my  family.’ 

“ I replied,  1 The  claims  of  God  upon  you  are  paramount 
to  those  of  your  mother ; and  besides,  your  filial  duty  to  your 
mother  requires  you  to  take  a firm  stand,  and  endeavor,  with 


HINDRANCES  FROM  ANCESTRAL  WORSHIP. 


391 


the  blessing  of  God,  to  save  her  soul  before  she  dies.  As  to 
the  friendship  of  the  world,  how  can  we  hesitate  in  choosing 
between  it  and  the  love  and  favor  of  God  ?’  Fearing  that  he 
had  incorrect  views  as  to  the  requirements  of  Christianity  with 
reference  to  ancestors,  I remarked,  ‘ Christianity  does  not  do 
violence  to  any  of  the  right  feelings  and  impulses  of  our  na- 
ture. It  is  our  privilege  and  duty  to  remember,  love,  and  re- 
vere the  memory  of  our  departed  parents ; and  it  is  our  priv- 
ilege to  visit  and  ornament  their  graves,  and  to  give  any 
proper  outward  expressions  to  the  feelings  of  our  hearts.’ 
‘ Yes,’  he  said  ; * but  my  case  is  different  from  yours.  When 
you  become  a Christian,  you  enter  the  religion  of  your  fa- 
thers, and  look  forward  to  a reunion  with  them  in  heaven.’ 
This  was  the  tender  point.  I replied,  ‘ With  reference  to 
your  ancestors,  you  must  leave  them  in  God’s  hands.  They 
died  as  you  never  can,  “ without  the  law.”  God  is  a God  of 
infinite  love  and  infinite  justice,  and  will  do  just  what  is  right. 
If  they  could  speak  to  you,  they  would  probably  say, 1 “ Flee 
to  Christ  for  your  life,  and  lay  hold  of  Him  as  your  only  Sa- 
viour.” ’ I added,  £ Think  of  what  may  be  the  feelings  of 
your  son  in  future  years  if  you  refuse  to  become  a Christian. 
Your  trouble  is  that  your  ancestors  did  not  know  of  Christ, 
and  could  not  believe  in  Him  ; your  son’s  would  be, £ ££  My  fa- 
ther knew  of  Christ,  and  was  urged  to  believe  in  and  be  saved 
by  Him,  but  would  not.”  ’ I acknowledged  that  his  difficul- 
ties were  real  and  serious,  but  said  that,  while  I sympathized 
with  him  deeply,  I could  do  little  for  him.  I pointed  him  to 
Christ  for  the  fullest  sympathy  and  help.  He  went  away  ap- 
parently with  a burden  heavier  than  before,  and  left  me  op- 
pressed with  a weight  of  sympathy,  anxiety,  and  responsibil- 
ity. 

u Wednesday,  loth. — To-day,  when  Suen  came,  he  asked 
whether  prayer  were  indeed  efficacious  ? I answered  that  it 
most  certainly  was.  He  replied,  £ I have  tried  to  give  myself 
to  God,  and  have  prayed  three  days,  but  have  obtained  no 
answer.’  I told  him  I feared  he  did  not  pray  aright,  and  en- 


392 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


deavored  to  instruct  him  in  the  nature  of  acceptable  prayer. 
I found  that  he  had  not  depended  as  he  should  on  the  media- 
tion and  sacrifice  of  Christ,  hut  had  offered  his  prayers  too 
much  in  his  own  name.  I told  him,  moreover,  that  though 
his  prayers  might  be  scriptural  and  acceptable,  God  would 
answer  them  and  give  him  peace  in  His  own  time  and  way, 
and  that  he  must  pray  with  earnestness,  importunity,  and 
faith,  assured  that  God  will  be  true  to  his  promises.  I ex- 
horted him  never  to  doubt  God,  but  to  look  well  to  his  own 
deceitful  heart,  and  guard  against  the  insidious  attacks  of  Sa- 
tan. The  change  in  his  feelings  is  remarkable.  He  has  con- 
versed again  with  his  mother,  and  it  is  evident  that  his  fam- 
ily know  the  state  of  his  mind,  so  far  as  they  can  understand 
and  appreciate  it.  A few  days  ago  when  he  was  writing  his 
objections  against  Christianity,  his  wife  opposed  him,  saying 
that  he  should  not  do  so,  for  Christianity  is  true.  He  says 
that  his  wife  is  still  of  the  same  opinion,  though  she  evidently 
does  not  now  sympathize  with,  and  can  not  understand  him. 
We  talked  much  to-day  of  the  work  of  the  .Spirit  and  the 
new  birth. 

“ Thursday , 16th. — When  Suen  came  this  morning,  I saw; 
that  his  countenance  was  less  sad.  I inquired  how  he  was 
getting  on.  He  answered,  ‘ My  confidence  is  becoming 
stronger,  and  my  doubts  weaker.  I feel  that  I am  progress- 
ing.’ I questioned  him  as  to  his  views  of  the  nature  of  sin, 
and  was  glad  to  find  that  they  Avere  scriptural.  His  account 
of  the  Avay  in  which  he  had  consecrated  himself  to  God  Avas 
also  very  interesting  and  encouraging.  I read  Avith  him  the 
description  Avhich  Hopeful  gives  of  his  conversion  in  the 
‘ Pilgrim’s  Progress,’  and  the  7th  and  8th  chapters  .of  Ro- 
mans. He  noAv  seems  to  love  the  Scriptures.  After  reading 
Avith  him,  I had  a long  conversation  on  the  sacraments  and 
Christian  duties.  In  speaking  of  God’s  providential  care  over 
his  people,  he  remarked,  ‘ I read  some  passages  in  the  Scrip- 
tures yesterday  Avhich  have  in  a great  measure  relieved  my 
anxiety.’  I asked  him  what  they  Avere.  He  repeated,  Avith 


OPPOSITION  IN  THE  FAMILY. 


393 


evident  delight,  the  verses  which  refer  to  the  ravens  and  the 
lilies.  Just  before  he  left  I said  to  him  that  I had  not  hither- 
to suggested  our  praying  together,  because  I felt  that  this  was 
a duty  which  he  must  begin  unaided,  and  that  I thought  it 
would  now  be  well  for  us  to  seek  God’s  blessing  together ; and 
asked  him  if,  after  my  prayer,  he  would  follow  in  one  of  his 
own.  To  this  he  assented.  His  prayer  was  broken,  but  sim- 
ple, unaffected,  and  scriptural.  He  spoke  of  himself  as  one 
who  hacl  known  nothing,  who  now  knows  very  little,  but  de- 
sires to-  know  more.  He  prayed  for  the  enlightening  influ- 
ence of  the  Spirit,  the  pardon  of  his  innumerable  sins  through 
Jesus  Christ,  and  for  his  family.  Also,  that  God  would  assist 
him  in  passing  the  new  year  without  sin. 

“ Saturday , 25th. — More  than  a week  has  elapsed  since  my 
last  entry.  During  this  time  Suen  has  learned  much  of  the 
difficulties  of  the  narrow  wray,  and  much  also  of  his  own  heart. 
Last  Sunday  he  came  for  the  first  time  to  spend  the  Sabbath 
with  us.  This  change  from  his  ordinary  habits  increased  the 
opposition  of  his  family.  He  has  had  occasion  several  times 
to  reproach  himself  for  not  being  able  to  exercise  a meek  and 
loving  spirit  while  they  were  opposing  him.  He  was  sur- 
prised that  he  had  so  little  strength,1 ’and  also  to  find  it  so  dif- 
ficult to  lead  a Christian  life.  Last  Thursday,  in  answer  to 
xny  inquiries,  he  told  me  that  he  was  having  a great  deal  of 
difficulty ; that  he  had  been  led  into  sin,  and  was  feeling  very 
sadly  about  it.  The  night  before  was  the  time  for  worshiping 
the  ‘ God  of  the  Kitchen,’  and  he  was  expected  to  perform 
the  act  of  worship).  His  mother  spoke  to  him  about  it  several 
times,  but  he  put  her  off,  saying,  ‘ Wait  a little.’  At  last,  when 
she  asked  him  again,  he  said,  £ I have  worshiped ;’  thus  de- 
ceiving her,  and  so  the  matter  dropped.  He  felt  that  he  had 
done  wrong,  and  asked  forgiveness  in  prayer,  but  was  still 
much  troubled.  After  he  had  retired  for  the  night,  he  told 
his  wife  more  particularly  of  his  determination  to  be  a Chris- 
tian, and  she  became  so  angry  that  she  threatened  to  leave 
him  and  go  west  to  Tsi-nan.  I told  him  that  I was  sorry,  but 

. K 2 


394 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


he  had  only  one  course  to  pursue,  and  that  was  to  obey  God 
at  all  hazards,  and  leave  the  result  with  Him.  I said,  more- 
over, that  he  need  not  expect  God’s  blessing  till  he  undeceived 
his  family  with  reference  to  the  affair  of  the  ‘ Kitchen  God  ’ 
and  confessed  his  fault.  I urged  him  too  to  declare  more  de- 
cidedly his  determination  with  reference  to  all  idolatrous  serv- 
ices, so  as  to  avoid  similar  difficulties  in  the  future.  He  seem- 
ed to  be  much  depressed  in  spirits,  and  I feared  that  he  might 
not  have  strength  to  stand  the  trial.  Yesterday  he  did  not 
come,  and  I was  not  a little  anxious.  To-day  he  told  me  that 
night  before  last  he  informed  his  family  clearly  of  his  de- 
termination to  have  nothing  more  to  do  with  idolatry  in  any 
form,  and  confessed  the  sin  of  deception  the  night  previous. 
They  were  so  much  distressed  that  they  all  began  to  cry  and 
lament,  and  he  cried  with  them.  His  mother  spoke  more 
harshly  to  him  than  ever  before,  and  said  some  things  which 
made  him  feel  very  sadly.  His  wife  is  the  most  severe  of  all, 
and  he  feels  his  case  a very  trying  one.  He  says  that  his 
family  have  not  at  all  given  up  the  idea  of  reclaiming  him  (as 
they  regard  it).  They  look  at  him  as  out  of  his  mind,  and 
think  that  I have  given  him  some  mysterious  potion,  by  which 
I have  gained  a great  p*ower  over  him.  I am  delighted  to 
see  evidences  that  he  is  being  taught  of  the  Spirit  how  to 
pray.  I have  this  evening  received  a note  saying  that  his 
family  have  laid  a trap  to  keep  him  from  coming  to  the  serv- 
ice to-morrow,  and  that  it  is  uncertain  whether  he  can  get 
away  or  not.  May  God  give  him  grace  to  do  his  whole  duty, 
and  overrule  these  trials  for  his  good. 

“ Tuesday , 28 th. — Day  before  yesterday  Suen  did  not  at- 
tend the  Sunday  service.  The  nieans  which  his  family  em- 
ployed to  keep  him  at  home  was  that  of  hiding  his  clothes  in 
the  night,  so  that  he  had  nothing  to  dress  himself  with  in  the 
morning.  I fear  that  he  is  altogether  too  yielding  and  irreso- 
lute. Tsao  tells  me  that  Suen  was  at  his  place  yesterday, 
and  produced  the  same  impression  on  him.  I can  but  com- 
mit him  into  the  hands  of  Christ,  who  alone  can  keep  him 


RELAPSE  TO  HEATHENISM. 


895 


from  falling.  He  has  asked  leave  of  absence  for  the  holidays. 
May  God  give  him  strength  to  withstand  temptation. 

“Saturday,  Feb.  1st — Yesterday  Suen  came  to  make  a 
New  Year’s  call.  I am  happy  to  write  that  I am  in  a meas- 
ure relieved  from  the  anxiety  I had  felt  about  him.  In  the 
first  place,  he  met  me  with  an  affectionate  warmth  which  I 
have  not  noticed  in  him  before.  Many  of  his  remarks  also 
indicated  that  his  interest  was  not  abated.  Judging  from  my 
exhortations  that  I had  some  fears  respecting  the  state  of  his 
mind,  he  said,  ‘ I am  sorry  that  you  have  so  much  anxiety  and 
trouble  about  me.  I assure  you  I have  not  given  up  my  reso- 
lutions ; God  has  not  forsaken  me,  and  my  purpose  is  still 
fixed.’  I cautioned  him  not  to  trust  in  self,  and  that  when  he 
thought  he  was  doing  well,  he  might  be  but  following  the  sug- 
gestions of  Satan.  He  is  now  finding  indeed  that  his  enemies 
are  they  of  his  own  household.  His  old  mother  is  very  much 
distressed,  feeling  that  her  son  is  being  led  away  by  a false 
religion.  His  sister,  who  was  disposed  to  sympathize  with 
him  at  first,  has  fallen  in  with  the  prevailing  opposition  of  the 
family.  His  wife  is  violent.  The  night  before  the  Chinese 
New  Year,  while  he  was  talking  with  her  and  declaring  his 
determination  to  be  a Christian,  she  made  avow  or  oath  that 
she  would  in  that  case  kill  herself ; and,  in  attestation  of  it, 
endeavored  to  cut  off  her  finger,  and  injured  it  very  severely. 
His  little  boy  is  entirely  under  the  influence  of  his  mother. 
Suen  hardly  knows  what  to  do. . I urged  upon  him  the  duty 
of  a strict  observance  of  the  Sabbath.  He  fears  that  if  he  at- 
tends church  on  the  coming  Sunday,  his  wife  may  do  some- 
thing desperate,  but  positively  promises  that  he  will  come  out 
the  Sunday  after.” 

Here  the  subject  is  discontinued  in  my  journal.  The  New 
Year  holidays,  with  their  varied  temptations,  proved  a dis- 
astrous season  for  poor  Suen.  When  they  were  over,  he  re- 
turned to  his  regular  employment,  continuing  to  profess  an 
undiminished  interest  in  personal  religion,  but  he  had  now  lit-4fc 
tie  disposition  to  converse  on  the  subject,  and  his  manner  was 


396 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


constrained.  He  had  shrunk  back  from  bearing  the  cross,  and 
his  course  was  from  that  time  backward  and  downward.  The 
work  in  which  he  was  engaged  with  me,  and  which  he  before 
so  much  en j oyed,  was  now  distasteful,  and  was  carelessly  per- 
formed. In  the  course  of  a few  weeks  his  connection  with 
me  became  as  irksome  to  him  as  it  was  unsatisfactory  to  me, 
and  he  left  my  employment.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add 
that  I parted  from  him  under  these  circumstances  with  deep 
regret  and  disappointment. 

But  there  are  still  greater  trials  than  such  as  I have  de- 
scribed above.  They  come  from  the  defections  of  those  who 
have  formally  taken  upon  themselves  the  vows  of  the  Lord 
Jesus;  who  have  been  loved  and  trusted  as  brethren;  who 
have  run  well,  and  borne  a decided  testimony  for  the  Gospel 
for  months  and  years ; but  have  afterward  fallen  under  the 
power  of  temptation,  and  brought  reproach  upon  the  cause  of 
Christ.  It  was  only  to  be  expected  that  in  China,  where 
Satan  has  held  undisputed  sway  over  the  minds  of  men  for  so 
many  centuries,  the  few  native  Christians  and  churches  that 
are  initiating  aggressive  movements  against  his  supremacy 
would  be  the  ob j ects  of  his  bitterest  malignity  and  most  vio- 
lent assaults.  Perhaps  we  should  not  wonder  that  the  fold  is 
sometimes  unexpectedly  entered,  and  the  sheep,  or  some  whom 
we  had  thought  the  sheep  of  Christ,  destroyed.  The  tempta- 
tions of  native  Christians  are  varied  and  numerous.  In  Chi- 
na, the  world,  the  flesh,  and  the  devil  seem  each  to  have  an 
additional  power,  and  the  condition  of  Christ’s  people  as  a 
“church  militant”  is  strikingly  illustrated.  Young  converts, 
ignorant  of  themselves  and  the  devices  of  Satan,  are  almost  un- 
consciously led  into  temptation,  and  frequently  become  dis- 
couraged and  disheartened.  Still  oftener,  seeing  the  faults  of 
others  more  clearly  than  their  own,  and  adopting  a high 
standard  of  Christian  duty,  they  become  censorious,  and 
strifes  and  contentions  spring  up  in  the  church.  But  the  wiles 
J of  the  adversary  are  often  overruled  to  defeat  his  own  pur- 
poses. Nothing  is  more  consolatory  and  inspiring  than  to  see 


AN  ESTRANGEMENT  OVERRULED  FOR  GOOD.  397 


the  young,  inexperienced,  and  self-confident  Christian,  after 
having  yielded  to  temptation,  cling  closer  to  the  Saviour  with 
a truer  humility  and  more  earnest  faith,  and  rise  to  renew  the 
contest  with  new  resolution  and  assurance. 

I have  known  repeated  instances  in  which  misunderstand- 
ings and  estrangements  between  Christian  brethren  have  in 
the  end  resulted  in  strengthening  and  cementing  their  friend- 
ship, as  well  as  increasing  their  influence.  About  ten  years 
ago  our  mission  in  Ningpo  was  just  establishing  out-stations 
inYu-yiao  and  San-poh,  in  both  of  which  places  we  now  have 
vigorous  and  growing  churches.  A misunderstanding  arose 
between  the  two  natives  who  had  charge  of  these  out-stations ; 
their  wives,  both  most  estimable  Christian  women,  taking  an 
active  part  in  the  inception  and  continuance  of  the  dispute. 
Each  party  felt  itself  aggrieved,  and  that  the  other  was  the 
sole  offender.  The  breach  became  wider,  so  that  there  was 
very  little  intercourse  between  the  two  families,  though  they 
labored  in  adjoining  districts.  This  state  of  feeling  inter- 
fered seriously  with  their  happiness  and  usefulness,  and  be- 
gan to  be  talked  about  by  the  lew  converts  whom  they  had 
gathered.  In  visiting  the  out-stations,  I had  several  conversa- 
tions with  them  about  this  matter,  but  their  difficulties  seem- 
ed to  them  insurmountable,  and  neither  was  disposed  to  yield. 
In  the  course  of  a few  months  I told  them  very  seriously  that 
I thought  there  was  no  j ust  cause  for  this  estrangement,  and 
that  they  were  sinning  against  each  other,  and  against  Christ ; 
and  that  they  could  not  expect  a blessing  upon  themselves  and 
their  work  until  these  differences  were  adjusted,  urging  them 
both  to  think  and  pray  over  the  matter.  I told  the  assistant 
at  Yu-yiao  that,  when  I came  round  again,  he  must  go  with 
me  to  San-poh  and  see  his  brother  face  to  face,  and  if  possible, 
then  and  there,  put  an  end  to  these  differences.  He  made  no 
reply,  but  his  silence  and  manner  showed  that  he  felt  the  im- 
portance of  such  a step,  and  was  willing  and  desirous  to  do 
what  was  really  his  duty.  About  a month  afterward  we  were 
slowly  wending,  our  way  in  a native  boat,  through  the  popu- 


898 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


Ions  plain  of  San-poh,  toward  the  little  village  of  Siao-gyiao- 
deo.  Arriving  at  the  house  of  the  native  assistant  there,  aft- 
er the  customary  salutations  and  a few  inquiries  about  his 
work,  I said  to  him,  “ Do  not  trouble  yourself  to  entertain  me 
to-day,  for  I have  been  a more  frequent  guest  in  your  house 
of  late  than  your  old  friend  whom  I have  brought  with  me 
and,  leaving  the  two  together,  I retired.  In  a few  hours  one 
of  them  made  his  appearance  from  the  room  where  they  had 
been  closeted  together,  and  I asked  him,  “ What  success  ?” 
He  answered,  “ First  we  prayed  together,  and  then  I com- 
menced saying  to  him  that  it  was  my  fault  that  we  had  been 
so  long  separated.  He  interrupted  me,  insisting  that  the  fault 
was  his.  He  would  not  let  me  make  any  confessions,  nor 
could  I him;  and  I assure  you  we  have  had  a ‘good  time.’” 
Under  the  power  of  grace,  each  had  been  led  to  see  a beam  in 
his  own  eye,  and  only  a mote  in  his  brother’s ; their  difficulties 
vanished,  and  their  old  friendship  revived  with  new  force,  and 
has,  I think,  never  since  been  interrupted. 

The  views  of  missionaries  differ  somewhat  as  to  the  prin- 
ciples by  which  they  should  be  governed  in  admitting  inquir- 
ers to  full  church  membership ; some  receiving  them  at  an 
early  period,  and  others  keeping  them  a longer  time  on  trial. 
It  is  a difficult  matter  to  determine  practically  the  best  course 
to  take  in  each  case  as  it  arises,  and  there  seems  to  be  dan- 
ger of  going  to  one  extreme  or  the  other.  Of  course,  the 
number  and  the  character  of  the  native  Christians  in  different 
stations  will  depend  much  on  the  view  which  is  adopted  as  to 
this  matter,  and  the  equally  important  one  of  church  disci- 
pline.  On  the  whole,  the  number  of  defections  is  smaller 
than,  under  the  circumstances,  might  be  expected.  In  the 
missions  connected  with  our  own  church,  the  proportion,  as 
near  as  I could  estimate  it,  was  about  seven  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  number  admitted;  and  other  missions  have  reported 
about  the  same  result.  In  some  cases,  the  administration  of 
discipline  is  immediately  followed  by  the  happiest  effects ; in 
others,  persons  suspended  or  excommunicated  are  brought 


THE  OBSERVANCE  OF  THE  SABBATH. 


399 


back  after  a period  of  months  or  years ; others  seem  to  be 
given  over  to  Satan ; and  the  final  result  of  their  defection  is 
veiled  in  thS  depths  of  the  future. 

Some  of  the  principal  difficulties  of  native  Christians  grow 
out  of  the  social  idolatrous  customs  of  the  country.  The  ques- 
tion as  to  eating  things  offered  to  idols  comes  up  in  precisely 
the  same  form  in  which  it  was  presented  to  the  Apostles  in 
early  times.  In  the  case  of  the  funeral  of  a relative  of  a na- 
tive Christian  in  families  all  the  other  members  of  which  are 
idolaters,  it  is  difficult  to  determine  precisely  what  course  the 
Christian  should  take.  He  must  endeavor  to  avoid  complic- 
ity with  idolatry,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  appearance  of  dis- 
regard for  deceased  relatives,  on  the  other.  Again,  we  some- 
times go  into  the  house  of  a native  Christian,  and  find  a rep- 
resentation of  the  Kitchen  God  in  its  accustomed  place,  with 
incense  burning  before  it,  and  perhaps  other  objects  of  wor- 
ship exposed  to  view.  This  fact  is  necessarily  calculated  to 
excite  suspicion.  But  the  native  Christian  may  happen  to 
have  a strong-minded  wife,  who  will  restore  the  Kitchen  God 
to  its  shrine  as  often  as  it  is  removed,  and  insists  on  her  right 
to  adhere  to  the  customs  of  her  people  and  worship  what  she 
chooses.  Here,  too,  it  is  difficult  to  determine  how  far  a 
Christian  man  ought  to  rule  in  his  own  house,  and  what  con- 
cessions may  be  made  on  the  plea  of  peace  and  necessity. 

Perhaps  the  principal  difficulty  which  Chinese  Christians 
meet  with  relates  to  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath.  A labor- 
er is  in  danger  of  being  thrown  out  of  employment  if  he  will 
not  work  whenever  his  employer  wishes  him.  A shop-keeper 
may  lose  his  customers  if  he  does  not.  keep  his  doors  open  at 
all  times.  When  I went  to  China,  it  was  an  occasional  subject 
of  discussion  among  missionaries  whether  we  had  the  right, 
under  the  circumstances,  to  insist  upon  the  strict  observance 
of  the  Sabbath  as  a necessary  condition  of  church  membership. 
The  matter  seems,  however,  to  be  one  in  which  we  have  no 
discretion.  If  this  duty  is  of  divine  obligation,  we  must  re- 
quire it  at  all  hazards.  I believe  that  a strict  adherence  to  it 


400 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


will  always  be  found  practicable,  and  is  not  only  desirable,  but 
absolutely  necessary  to  the  existence  of  a pure  Christianity  in 
any  country. 

An  experience  of  one  of  our  church  members  in  Ningpo 
will  illustrate  this  subject,  as  well  as  some  important  phases 
of  Chinese  life  and  character  to  which  I have  not  referred. 
I commenced  my  first  attempts  at  chapel  preaching  in  what  is 
called  the  Bing-gyiao-deo  chapel  at  Ningpo.  I noticed  almost 
every  day  a man  in  working  dress,  who  would  come  in  with 
a very  accustomed  air,  take  his  seat  in  one  corner,  and  listen 
quietly,  while  he  smoked  his  pipe.  I learned  that  he  was  the 
proprietor  of  the  adjoining  bean-curd  shop,  and  that  he  was 
familiarly  called  Deo-vu  Ali-san — “ Bean-curd  Ah-san.”  lie 
had  been  acquainted  with  our  operations  in  the  chapel  from 
its  first  erection,  and  came  in  to  see  how  the  young  mission- 
ary succeeded.  Sometimes  when  conversations  with  visitors 
led  me  into  regions  of  the  Ningpo  dialect,  which  I-  had  not 
thoroughly  explored,  having  at  that  time  been  in  China  less 
than  a year,  he  would  come  to  my  help,  and  render  me  very 
opportune  assistance.  One  day,  after  dismissing  the  audience, 
I asked  him  to  stay  a while,  as  I wished  to  talk  with  him.  I 
told  him  I was  delighted  to  notice  his  knowledge  of  Christian- 
ity, and  his  disposition  to  defend  it,  and  asked  him  why  he  did 
not  become  a Christian.  He  replied,  with  his  characteristic 
promptness  and  frankness,  “ I do  believe  Christianity,  and  I 
would  like  to  be  a Christian ; but  I’ll  tell  you  wdiat  the  diffi- 
culty is.  I sell  bean-curd  for  a living ; and  when  I weigh  it 
out  to  customers  (and  here  he  balanced  his  long  pipe-stem 
nicely  over  his  finger),  I always  feel  a disposition  to  make  the 
bean-curd  side  of  the  scale  the  lighter,  and  I know  that  is  not 
consistent  with  Christianity.  I don’t  feel  ready  to  change  my 
practice  yet ; I know  what  the  Bible  requires ; and  if  ever  I 
make  a profession  of  my  faith,  I mean  to  live  up  to  it.  . Be- 
sides, there  is  the  Sabbath  question.  The  bean-curd  which  I 
prepare  in  the  morning  must  be  sold  the  same  day  or  early  the 
next  morning,  or  it  will  spoil,  and  be  a dead  loss ; and  shut- 


SUSPENSION  FROM  CHURCH  PRIVILEGES. 


401 


ting  up  shop  the  whole  day  would  ruin  me.”  In  the  course  of 
a year  I became  pastor  of  the  native  church,  and  Ah-san  not 
long  after  applied  for  baptism.  His  love  for  the  truth  had 
grown,  and  he  had  resolved  to  try  to  obey  his  convictions  of 
duty.  From  the  time  of  his  application  for  baptism  until  he 
was  received  into  the  church,  a period  of  several  months,  the 
shop  was  shut  every  seventh  day.  A few  months  after  his 
public  profession  of  Christianity,  native  church  members  no- 
ticed that  his  door  was  left  ajar  on  Sunday,  and  an  occasional 
customer  was  seen  entering  it.  When  spoken  to  about  this, 
he  said  that  the  neighbors  would  come  to  him  and  ask  if  he  had 
any  bean-curd  left  over ; and  if  he  had,  he  let  them  take  it  as  a 
matter  of  accommodation,  and  to  keep  it  from  spoiling.  But 
the  applicants  for  bean-curd  on  Sunday  became  more  numerous, 
and  Ah-san  was  less  careful  not  to  make  too  much  on  Satur- 
day, and  soon  opened  his  shop  on  Sunday  outright.  The  na- 
tive elders  expostulated  with  him  to  no  effect,  and  I sent  for 
him  to  come  to  see  me.  He  told  me  he  had  thought  the  mat- 
ter over  deliberately  and  seriously,  and  he  did  not  believe  that 
God  required  him  to  close  his  shop  on  Sunday.  It  was  very 
well  for  us  to  theorize  about  it ; but  he  must  provide  for  his 
family,  and  the  customers  were  falling  off,  because  they  would 
buy  where  they  could  do  so  whenever  they  wished  to,  and 
there  was  danger  of  his  coming  to  want.  He  said  further, 
“ I am  very  sorry  to  give  you  so  much  trouble,  but  I can  not 
help  it.  If  you  feel  it  your  duty  to  suspend  me  from  the 
privileges  of  the  church,  or  to  excommunicate  me,  I will  not 
complain • I shall  do  what  I think  is  right,  and  so  must  you. 
I mean  to  live  and  die  a Christian.  I will  never  deny  my 
Saviour,  but  I have  determined  to  open  my  shop  on  Sunday. 
I hope  the  brethren  who  live  in  my  neighborhood  will  come 
into  my  shop  every  evening  as  before,  to  unite  with  us  in  our 
evening  service  of  reading  the  Scriptures  and  prayer ; I will 
read  (as  I can  do  so  better  than  they),  and  explain  a little, 
and  then  I wiU  call  on  them  to  pray.” 

This  was  Ah-san’s  fixed  resolution  ; and,  as  he  anticipated, 


402 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


he  was  suspended  from  the  communion  of  the  church.  In 
carrying  out  his  purpose,  he  met  with  a difficulty  in  his  fam- 
ily. His  wife  had  united  with  the  church  in  company  with 
him.  She  was  as  decided  a character  as  he,  and  as  firmly  set 
in  her  ways.  I remember  a complaint  against  her  which  he 
once  made  to  me  as  her  pastor.  Said  he,  “ I believe  my  wife 
is  a true  Christian,  but  she  will  not  leave  off  some  of  her  old 
lieathen  habits.  When  she  becomes  warm  and  earnest  in  her 
private  devotions,  she  kneels  down  and  strikes  her  head 
against  the  floor  j ust  as  she  used  to  do  when  she  worshiped 
idols.  When  I am  in  the  shop  here,  I often  hear  her  up  stairs, 
bump — bump — bump ; I wish  you  would  speak  to  her  about 
it.”  This  woman  declared  that  she  would  never  have  any 
thing  to  do  with  making  or  selling  bean-curd  on  Sunday.  A 
daughter,  who  assisted  her  parents  somewhat  in  the  work, 
sided  with  her  mother,  and  poor  Ah-san  was  obliged  to  do 
what  he  could  on  Sunday  alone. 

Another  difficulty  arose  which  neither  he  nor  any  one  else 
had  anticipated.  The  week  following  his  suspension,  he  had, 
as  he  told  me  afterward,  an  unpleasant  pricking  sensation  on 
the  back  of  his  neck,  with  a slight  swelling.  In  a few  days  it 
became  a very  painful  boil,  and  the  next  Sunday  he  was  from 
necessity  obliged  to  shut  his  shop.  Some  of  the  native  Chris- 
tians called  on  him  and  suggested  that  there  might  be  a prov- 
idence in  this.  He  replied,  “ Oh,  I have  had  boils  before  ; it 
will  all  be  over  in  a day  or  two.”  But  the  boil  grew  more 
painful,  and  proved  to  be  a carbuncle ; week  after  week  it 
gave  him  hardly  a moment’s  sleep ; but  he  kept  up  his  cour- 
age, hoping  that  every  week  would  be  the  last.  He  spent  a 
large  sum  of  money  in  employing  physicians,  but  to  no  pur- 
pose. He  became  very  weak  and  emaciated,  and  we  began 
to  fear  that  his  sickness  might  terminate  fatally.  At  last 
a change  came  over  his  feelings ; he  acknowledged  that  he  felt 
that  God’s  hand  was  in  his  sufferings,  and  declared  his  deter- 
mination that,  if  God  would  spare  his  life  and  restore  him  to 
health,  his  shop  should  never  be  opened  again  on  Sunday.  Very 


SABBATH  OBSERVANCE  IN  YU-YIAO. 


403 


soon  after  this  he  was  relieved  from  pain,  and  recovered  his 
health.  When  I last  heard  from  him,  he  was  still  to  be  found 
in  his  bean-curd  shop  by  the  side  of  the  Bing-gyiao  deo  chap- 
el ; his  shop  is  strictly  closed  on  Sunday,  and  he  has  not  come 
to  want. 

Just  before  leaving  China,  I had  practical  evidence  of  the 
strictness  with  which  the  Sabbath  is  observed  in  our  out-sta- 
tions. After  a pleasant  visit  in  San-poh,  Mr.  Dodd  and  my- 
self arrived  at  Yu-yiao  on  Friday  evening,  to  spend  sometime 
in  that  station.  Most  of  Friday  evening,  Saturday,  and  Sat- 
urday evening  till  a late  hour  were  spent  in  examining  candi- 
dates for  baptism.  On  Sunday  fifteen  were  received  into  the 
church — ten  women  and  five  men,  and  sat  down  with  us  for 
the  first  time  at  the  Lord’s  table.  It  was  a time  long  to  be 
remembered  by  us.  The  scene  we  then  witnessed  was  almost 
enough  to  satisfy  a missionary  for  a life  of  labor  and  trial, 
and  one  on  Avhich  angels  might  look  with  delight.  It  was  ten 
o’clock  at  night  before  all  the  native  Christians  had  left 
the  chapel  for  their  homes.  Being  very  desirous  of  return- 
ing to  Ningpo  as  soon  on  Monday  as  possible,  as  I was  busily 
engaged  in  preparing  to  return  to  this  country,  I suggested  to 
Mr.  Dodd  that  we  might  take  our  bundles  to  our  boat,  which 
was  lying  about  a quarter  of  a mile  from  the  chapel,  and  sleep 
there,  taking  advantage  of  the  ebb-tide,  by  which  the  boatmen 
could  leave  for  Ningpo  at  twelve  in  the  night.  The  native 
preacher,  Kying  Ling-yiu,  hearing  of  our  plan,  requested  us 
not  to  do  so  for  the  following  reason.  Said  he,  “ Our  people 
here  are  very  stiff  on  the  Sabbath  question.  Some  time  since 
a letter  came  here  from  Mr.  Rankin,  at  Ningpo,  to  be  for- 
warded in  haste  to  San-poh.  It  arrived  on  Saturday.  A 
passenger  and  mail  boat  was  to  leave  the  next  day,  but  there 
would  be  none  on  Monday,  and  I feared  that  the  detaining  of 
the  letter  till  Tuesday  might  be  attended  by  serious  inconven- 
ience. So  I handed  it  to  Jun-kao,  requesting  him  on  his  re- 
turn home  to  give  it  to  the  boatman  to  take  by  the  first  op- 
portunity. ‘ Why,’  said  he,  ‘ the  boat  starts  on  Sunday.  I 


404 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


will  do  no  such  thing !’  and  the  letter  was  not  sent  till  Tues- 
day. Now  I know  that  what  you  propose  to  do  is  perfectly 
right,  but  I fear  that  it  would  give  rise  to  remark  and  misap- 
prehension, and  might  do  some  harm.”  We  thanked  him 
for  his  frankness,  and,  to  prevent  lowering  in  any  degree  the 
standard  of  Sabbath  observance  already  established  in  this  in- 
fant church,  we  waited  till  Monday  P.M. 

And  now,  with  a few  words  respecting  the  man  Jun-kao 
above  referred  to,  I will  close  this  long  chapter  and  this  sub- 
ject. When  our  native  assistant  first  went  to  Yu-yiao,  Jun- 
kao  was  known  there  as  one  of  the  most  notoriously  wicked 
men  in  the  place.  We  little  imagined  that  he  would  be  among 
the  first  converts  there;  but  God  had  chosen  him.  He  be- 
came an  earnest  and  out-spoken  Christian,  and,  as  was  evident 
to  all,  a truly  reformed  man,  though  he  still  felt  it  allowable 
for  him  to  take  his  wine,  and  sometimes  took  it  rather'too  free- 
ly. (He  has  since  given  it  up  altogether.)  In  order  to  be 
able  to  observe  the  Sabbath,  he  relinquished  a comparatively 
easy  and  lucrative  employment  and  took  up  the  carpenter’s 
trade,  which  he  learned  in  his  youth.  At  the  time  of  my  vis- 
it above  referred  to,  he  had  been  instrumental  in  bringing 
about  fifteen  persons,  members  of  his  family,  relatives,  and 
friends,  into  the  church.  He  was  by  no  means  a perfect  char- 
acter, and  probably  gave  more  trouble  to  his  pastor  than  al- 
most any  other  member  of  the  church,  by  his  eccentricities, 
impulsiveness,  and  self-will ; but  it  was  equally  true  that  no 
other  church  member  was  a more  efficient  helper.  He  has 
more  than  once  stumbled  and  fallen,  but  he  has  never  been  ut- 
terly cast  down,  and  his  course  has  on  the  whole  been  a very 
consistent  one. 

These  chapters  on  missions  have  far  exceeded  the  bounds 
which  I at  first  intended.  I trust  they  may  have  the  effect  to 
satisfy  the  reader  that  there  are  in  China  true,  earnest,  and 
self-sacrificing  native  Christians,  and  native  churches  full  of 
promise.  My  testimony  is,  and  I speak  of  what  I know  from 
personal  experience  and  observation,  having  been  as  familiarly 


THE  GOSPEL  ADAPTED  TO  ALL  NATIONS. 


405 


and  intimately  acquainted  with  many  of  these  native  Chris- 
tians as  a pastor  at  home  can  be  with  the  members  of  his  flock, 
that  the  work  of  missions  in  China  is  in  no  sense  “ a failure.” 
The  Gospel  of  Christ  there,  as  elsewhere,  has  proved  itself  to  be 
“ the  wisdom  of  God  and  the  power  of  God  unto  salvation.” 


406 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  MISSIONS  IN  CHINA. 

The  Manner  in  which  the  early  Missionaries  of  Rome  gained  an  Entrance 
into  the  Chinese  Empire. — Their  Compromise  of  the  Truth,  and  the 
Controversies  and  Dissensions  between  different  Religious  Orders. — Sec- 
ular Employments. — The  Mode  of  prosecuting  their  Missionary  Work.— 
Character  of  the  Missionaries. — Statistics  of  Missionary  Results. — Their 
Improvement  of  the  Advantages  of  the  late  Treaties. — Character  of  the 
Native  Christians. — A Reference  to  the  Religious  Literature  of  the  Church 
of  Rome  in  China.— The  Excellences  and  Defects  of  the  System. — Its 
probable  Influence  on  the  Future  of  the  Empire. 

The  present  and  prospective  influence  of  the  Church  of 
Rome  upon  the  Chinese  Empire  renders  the  consideration  of 
the  missions  of  that  Church  a matter  of  much  interest  and 
importance.  It  is  unnecessary  to  repeat  the  statements  which 
were  made  in  Chapter  XX.  respecting  the  first  introduction 
of  this  faith  into  the  East. 

The  labors  of  the  early  founders  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
missions  in  China  were  attended  with  many  practical  diffi- 
culties. Matteo  Ricci  gained  an  entrance  into  the  country, 
and  a favorable  consideration  for  his  new  religion,  by  teaching 
astronomy  and  Western  sciences,  and  thus  conciliating  the 
favor  of  the  Emperor.  In  retaining  by,  position  at  court 
and  making  converts  from  the  natives,  he  compromised  the 
truth  of  Christianity,  and  made  concessions  to  idolatry  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  call  forth  the  most  decided  protest  and 
opposition  of  his  own  Church,  a writer  of  which  gives  to  him 
the  following  character  : “ Ricci  was  active,  skillful,  full  of 
schemes,  and  endowed  with  all  the  talents  necessary  to  render 
him  agreeable  to  the  great,  or  to  gain  the  favor  of  princes ; 
but  at  the  same  time  so  little  versed  in  matters  of  faith  that, 


SECULAR  EMPLOYMENTS. 


407 


as  the  Bishop  of  Conon  said,  it  was  sufficient  to  read  his  wort? 
on  the  true  religion  to  be  satisfied  that  he  was  ignorant  of 
the  first  principles  of  theology.  Being  more  of  a politician 
than  a theologian,  he  found  the  secret  of  remaining  peacefully 
in  China.  The  kings  found  in  him  a man  full  of  complai- 
sance; the  pagans  a minister  who  accommodated  himself  to 
their  superstitions  ; the  Mandarins  a polite  courtier,  skilled  in 
all  the  trickery  of  courts ; and  the  devil  a faithful  servant, 
who,  far  from  destroying,  established  his  reign  among  the 
heathen,  and  even  extended  it  to  the  Christians.  He  preach- 
ed m China  the  religion  of  Christ  according  to  his  own  fancy  ; 
that  is  to  say,  he  disfigured  it  by  a faithful  mixture  of  pagan 
superstitions,  adopting  the  sacrifices  offered  to  Confucius  and 
ancestors,  and  teaching  the  Christians  to  assist  and  co-operate 
at  the  worship  of  idols,  provided  they  only  addressed  their 
devotions  to  a cross  covered  with  flowers,  or  secretlyfcttached 
to  one  of  the  candles  which  were  lighted  in  the  temples  of 
the  false  gods.”* 

Ricci,  in  tolerating  the  worship  of  Confucius  and  of  ances- 
tors, justified  himself  in  taking  this  course  on  the  ground  that 
these  ceremonies  were  civil  rather  than  religious  in  their  char- 
acter, being  an  expression  of  respect  for  the  memory  of 
worthy  men,  rather  than  of  divine  worship  paid  to  gods. 
When  a warm  controversy  arose  on  this  subject  between 
Ricci,  together  with  the  order  of  Jesuits  to  which  he  belong- 
ed, and  the  Dominicans,  the  Chinese  Emperor  took  sides  with 
the  Jesuits,  and  granted  toleration  to  the  religion  of  Rome 
only  in  the  form  in  which  they  taught  it. 

When  the  Pope’s  assumption  of  supreme  authority  over  all 
kings  and  their  subjects,  and  the  contentions  of  the  different 
religious  orders  had  excited  the  suspicion  and  strict  surveil- 
lance of  the  government,  the  teachers  of  Rome  could  retain 
their  position  in  the  empire  only  by  exercising  duplicity,  and 
redoubling  their  efforts  to  make  themselves  useful  to  the  Em- 
peror in  a secular  way.  Their  employments  were  at  this  time 
* “Anecdotes  de  le  China,”  tome  i.  pref.  vi.  vii. 


408 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


“diversified  by  teaching  and  superintending  the  casting  of  can- 
non, and  planning  and  constructing  water-clocks  and  fount- 
ains for  the  Emperor’s  palace.'  It  is  said,  on  the  authority 
of  the  missionaries  themselves,  that  in  1636  Schaal  cast  a num- 
ber of  cannon  for  the  Emperor  Shunclii,  and  “Verbiest  at 
one  time  cast  one  hundred  and  thirty  pieces  for  Kanghi  with 
wonderful  success : he  afterward  cast  three  hundred  and 
twenty  more,  which  he  blessed  in  a solemn  manner,  and  gave 
the  name  of  a saint  to  every  piece.”* 

Yung-ching,  the  successor  of  Kanghi,  issued  an  order  in 
1724  prohibiting  the  propagation  of  the  Roman  Catholic  re- 
ligion, and  commanding  all  the  missionaries  not  required  at 
Pekin  for  scientific  purposes  to  leave  the  country.  Some  of 
them  succeeded  in  secreting  themselves ; and  others  who 
were  sent  away,  stealthily  found  their  way  back  to  their  flocks. 
During#lie  period  of  more  than  a hundred  years  of  persecu- 
tion which  ensued,  many  of  the  native  Christians  and  some  of 
the  foreign  teachers  suffered  death  for  their  devotion  to  their 
religion.  The  manner  in  which  the  missionaries  were  accus- 
tomed to  prosecute  their  labors  previous  to  the  recent  trea- 
ties of  toleration  is  given  in  the  following  extracts  from  Wil- 
liams’s “ Middle  Kingdom  ” and  Edkins’s  “ Religious  Condi- 
tion of  the  Chinese 

“When  a new  missionary  arrives,  he  is  lodged  with  his 
brethren  until  a trusty  guide  comes  from  the  country  to  con- 
duct him  to  his  appointed  place.  He  adopts  the  Chinese 
garb ; and  with  little  or  no  knowledge  of  the  language,  com- 
mits himself  to  the  care  of  the  courier.  ‘ Sometimes  on  foot, 
sometimes  in  boats,  sometimes  like  a rich  man  in  his  sedan, 
and  sometimes  under  the  guise  of  an  officer  in  his  chariot,  he 
pursues  his  course.  If  suspected,  which  is  often  the  case, 
from  the  blue  color  of  his  eyes,  the  length  or  turn  of  his  nose, 
or  the  fairness  of  his  skin,  he  turns  his  face  to  the  wall ; if 
addressed  with  impertinent  questions,  he  either  feigns  deaf- 
ness, or  professes  not  to  understand  the  dialect  of  the  ques- 
* Williams’s  “ Middle  Kingdom.  ” 


MANNER  OF  GATHERING  CONVERTS.  409 

tioner.  If  the  case  Decome  an  extreme  one,  and  his  conduct- 
or can  not  browbeat  or  evade  the  challenger,  he  declares  him 
an  idiot,  whom  he  is  conducting  to  his  friends  in  another  part 
of  the  empire ; or  the  party  seek  safety  in  sudden  flight,  and 
come  together  again  under  cover  of  darkness.’  When  they 
reach  their  field  of  labor,  the  new  missionaries  are  placed  un- 
der the  direction  of  their  associates,  spending  some  of  their 
time  in  learning  the  language,  and  in  hearing  confessions  with 
the  aid  of  a manual  prepared  for  that  purpose.  As  they  ad- 
vance in  knowledge  of  the  language  and  of  their  charge,  they 
go  from  one  Christianity  (as  the  separate  circles  of  converts 
are  called)  to  another,  hearing  confessions  and  masses,  admin- 
istering baptism  and  extreme  unction,  and  performing  the  va- 
rious duties  belonging  to  a pastor’s  office.  They  are  constant- 
ly changing  their  residence,  which  both  diminishes  the  chances 
of  their  detection,  and  tends  to  the  preservation  of  their 
health.” 

“ The  numbers  of  the  native  Catholic  community  in  Chi- 
na are  kept  up  chiefly  at  present  by  teaching  within  the  com- 
munity itself.  Few  converts,  comparatively,  are  made  from 
the  surrounding  heathen.  The  successive  persecutions  insti- 
tuted by  the  government  checked  the  aggressive  efforts  of 
the  missions,  and  chilled  the  zeal  of  those  who  were  contem- 
plating the  adoption  of  the  Catholic  faith.  As  the  mission- 
aries arrive  from  Europe,  they  are  conveyed  secretly  into  the 
interior  under  the  care  of  converts,  and  pass  their  time  after- 
ward entirely  in  the  society  of  the  members  of  the  com- 
munity. Strangers  are  not  permitted  to  know  of  their  pres- 
ence. The  boatmen  or  chair-bearers  who  conduct  them  from 
place  to  place  are  native  Christians.  So  also  are  their  serv- 
ants at  the  residences  provided  for  them.  On  their  reaching 
any  station  to  perform  their  official  duties,  information  is 
quickly  communicated  to  all  the  residents  who  regard  them 
as  their  spiritual  guides,  and  they  then  assemble  to  receive 
their  blessing.  It  is  indispensable  when  they  enter  the  room 
where  the  European  priest  is  seated  that  they  should  perform 

S 


410 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


a prostration  before  him.  No  one  outside  of  the  communi- 
ty is  allowed  to  see  the  foreign  priest  till  he  has  gone  through 
a course  of  instruction  under  the  native  catechists  and  priests. 
When  a heathen  is  ready  for  baptism  he  may  have  an  inter- 
view with  the  ‘spiritual  father  from  the  Western  ocean,’ but 
not  usually  sooner.  This  circumspection  is  rendered  necessa- 
ry by  the  state  of  the  laws  in  China,  which  have  hitherto  not 
permitted  the  entrance  of  foreigners  into  the  interior  of  the 
country.  Very  irksome  is  the  restraint  under  which  foreign 
priests  are  placed,  for  it  is  not  considered  safe  for  them  to  be 
noticed  by  any  eyes  except  those  of  trusted  friends.  Some- 
times when  a rumor  is  spread  of  their  presence  in  a walled 
city,  they  are  conveyed  in  a sedan  chair  out  of  the  gate,  and 
brought  in  again  by  the  gate  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  city. 
This  is  done  to  induce  the  belief  that  they  have  taken  their 
departure.  They  usually,  however,  avoid  cities  altogether 
and  remain  in  the  country,  where  accommodations  are  pro- 
vided for  them  under  the  superintendence  of  the  converts. 
They  are  liable  to  ejection  at  any  moment  from  their  tempo- 
rary lodging-place,  should  suspicion  be  excited  and  inquiry 
be  made  for  them.  Hue  speaks  in  his  ‘ Travels  in  Tartary 
and  Thibet’  of  the  enjoyment  occasioned  to  him  and  his  com- 
panion by  their  sense  of  freedom  when  they  had  passed  be- 
yond the  Great  Wall  into  Tartary,  because  there  they  could 
allow  themselves  to  be  seen  without  fear  of  capture.  In 
these  circumstances,  the  gathering  in  of  new  converts  is  left 
to  the  zeal  and  efficiency  of  the  native  converts.” 

Many  of  the  early  Romish  missionaries  of  China  were  men 
of  decided  ability  and  learning,  and  of  earnest  zeal  and  devo- 
tion. Those  of  the  present  day,  though  not  wanting  in  the 
latter  qualities,  are,  judging  from  those  whom  I have  met, 
from  the  comparative  want  of  literary  works  of  a high  order 
of  recent  date,  and  from  the  character  of  native  converts,  in- 
ferior in  ability  and  culture  to  their  predecessors. 

The  following  statistics,  taken  from  Williams’s  “ Middle 
Kingdom,”  will  give  some  idea  of  the  state  of  Roman  Catho- 


STATISTICS  OF  THE  ROMISH  CHURCH.  411 

lie  missions  soon  after  the  treaty  which  opened  the  “ five 
ports “The  summary  for  the  year  1846  gives  twelve  bish- 
ops, seven  or  eight  coadjutors,  about  eighty  foreign  mission- 
aries, and  ninety  native  priests.  The  number  of  converts  in 
the  whole  is  now  not  far  from  400,000.  The  number  of 
schools  is  not  given  ; in  Sz-chuen  alone  there  are  fifty-four  for 
boys,  and  one  hundred  and  fourteen  for  girls.  There  are  six 
colleges  for  educating  native  priests,  including  that  at  Naples, 
but  we  can  not  learn  the  total  number  of  pupils.  The  amount 
of  funds  received  from  Europe  for  them  all  in  1846  was  about 
$59,000.” 

Under  the  protection  of  the  recent  treaties  the  missions  of 
the  Romish  Church  are  being  carried  on  openly,  and  with  re- 
newed activity  and  very  decided  results.  The  number  of  for- 
eign priests  has  been  greatly  increased ; new  schools  and 
foundling  asylums  have  been  established  ; and  many  female 
assistants  have  entered  the  field,  and  are  busily  employed  in 
connection  with  foundling  asylums ; visiting  from  house  to 
house,  dispensing  medicine,  conciliating  the  good-will  of  the 
people,  and  baptizing  the  children.  Under  the  provisions  of 
the  late  treaties,  land  and  important  building-sites  which  were 
taken  from  the  Roman  Catholics  during  the  persecutions  of 
former  years  have  been  restored,  thus  giving  them  prestige 
among  the  people,  and  furnishing  them  with  additional  means 
for  extending  their  operations. 

The  comparatively  large  number  of  converts  connected 
with  the  Romish  Church  is  readily  accounted  for  by  the  length 
of  time  during  which  its  missions  have  been  prosecuted ; 
the  striking  resemblance,  described  in  Chapter  VIII.  between 
its  doctrines  and  rites  and  those  of  Buddhism;  by  the  fact 
that  very  little  knowledge  or  evidence  of  a change  of  heart 
and  fife  is  deemed  requisite  to  church  membership ; and  the 
freedom  accorded  to  native  converts  in  allowing  them  to  work 
on  Sunday,  and  to  conform  in  many  respects  to  the  supersti- 
tious practices  of  their  countrymen.  Their  religion  consists  in 
being  baptized,  and  attending  regularly  the  mass  and  the  con- 


412 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


fessional,  and  believing  that  their  souls  are  safe  in  the  keeping 
of  the  Church  and  the  priest.  In  order  to  participate  in  the 
benefits  conferred  by  the  Church,  they  are  taught  that  they 
must  abjure  all  connection  with  the  worship  of  Chinese 
gods,  and  never  deny,  on  pain  of  eternal  punishment,  the  re- 
ligion which  they  have  adopted.  The  result  is,  that  they  gen- 
erally keep  aloof  from  the  idolatrous  worship  of  Buddhism 
and  Tauism,  bear  testimony  to  the  universal  duty  of  worship- 
ing one  God  and  believing  in  one  Saviour,  and  will  generally 
adhere  to  their  religious  professions  to  the  death.  But  in  re- 
nouncing idolatry  as  taught  by  Buddhism,  they  still  practice 
it  in  another  form ; worshiping  saints  and  intercessors,  pic- 
tures, images,  and  crucifixes  ; believing  in  works  of  merit  and 
supererogation  ; exercising  blind  faith  in  their  religious  teach- 
ers, and  carrying  about  with  them  some  engraving  of  our 
Saviour,  or  the  cross,  or  other  symbol,  which  is  regarded  with 
superstitious  reverence,  and  sometimes  as  possessed  of  a tal- 
ismanic  charm. 

An  idea  of  the  character  of  Romanism  in  China  may  be  de- 
rived from  their  literature  written  for  the  instruction  and  ad- 
monition of  the  faithful.  While  it  contains  many  works  full 
of  Christian  truth  and  of  sterling  literary  merit,  it  includes 
others  as  full  of  superstition,  fables,  and  pious  frauds  as  the 
works  of  Buddhism ; thus  presenting  another  strong  resem- 
blance to  it.  Before  leaving  China,  I made  a collection  of 
many  of  their  books,  which  I spent  some  time  in  reading. 
Some  of  them  have  left  an  impression  on  my  mind  which  I 
can  never  forget ; showing  how  well  they  are  calculated  to  ar- 
rest the  attention  and  impress  the  memory.  I remember  one 
in  particular,  which  comprised  several  volumes,  and  had  for  its 
special  object  the  explaining,  illustrating,  and  enforcing  of  the 
different  dogmas  and  practices  of  the  Romish  faith ; such  as 
celibacy,  the  celebration  of  the  mass,  making  pilgrimages  to 
holy  places,  etc.  The  Ten  Commandments  professedly  form 
the  basis  of  the  book,  and  each  doctrine  or  practice,  in  order 
to  give  it  a divine  sanction,  is,  by  some  means  or  other,  asso- 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  LITERATURE. 


413 


dated  with  one  of  the  commandments.  The  peculiar  feature 
of  this  work  is  found  in  the  alleged  historical  facts  and  expe- 
riences which  are  cited  to  prove  the  truth,  and  establish  the 
importance  of  the  rites  and  usages  of  the  Church.  These 
facts  are  evidently  intended  for  those  who  are  ignorant  and 
uninformed,  and  are  remarkably  adapted  to  work  upon  their 
religious  or  superstitious  fears.  Some  of  them- 1 will  give 
from  memory. 

A whole  community  of  the  faithful  are  about  to  be  massa- 
cred by  an  unbelieving  king,  and  his  soldiers  are  in  attendance 
for  this  purpose,  when  he  offers  them  life  on  the  one  condition 
that  they  shall  verify  the  statement  of  their  sacred  book  by 
causing  a mountain  before  them  to  move  by  means  of  their 
prayers.  A priest  quiets  the  fears  and  trepidation  of  his  fol- 
lowers, appears  before  the  king,  calls  upon  God  to  move  the 
mountain,  and  it  moves- ! and  the  astonished  king  becomes  a 
true  believer  and  propagator  of  the  faith  ! 

A young  girl,  who  had  devoted  herself  to  a life  of  celibacy, 
is  sought  in  marriage  by  the  son  of  a person  of  wealth  and 
rank,  and  is  urged  and  tempted  in  a variety  of  ways  to  break 
her  vow.  In  one  of  these  efforts  to  shake  her  constancy,  a 
person  is  struck  dead  in  her  presence,  and  then  through  her 
prayers  he  is  immediately  restored  to  life.  She  is  then,  on  ac- 
count of  her  exercise  of  mysterious  and  miraculous  powers, 
accused  of  being  a witch,  and  condemned  as  such  to  be  burn- 
ed ; but  the  fire  refuses  to  do  its  work,  and  the  funeral  pile  is 
consumed  to  ashes,  while  she  sits  quietly  and  unconcerned, 
without  even  the  smell  of  the  flames  on  her  garments.  She 
afterward  dies  voluntarily,  and  reappears  as  a beautiful  virgin 
clothed  in  white  to  console  her  mourning  parents.  It  might 
be  interesting  to  learn  which  of  the  Ten  Commandments  this 
book  refers  to  as  enjoining  celibacy.  The  story  of  the  girl 
j ust  given  is  connected  with  the  third  commandment,  “ Thou 
shalt  not  take  the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in  vain.”  This 
is  done  in  a manner  something  as  follows:  “It  is  a solemn 
thing  to  make  a vow  to  God.  Breaking  such  a vow  is  1 taking 


414 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


the  name  of  Gocl  in  vain  therefore  the  vow  of  celibacy  must 
never  be  broken.” 

A man  in  time  of  persecution  was  urged  to  deny  his  Sav- 
iour, but  refused,  asseverating  that  the  name  of  Jesus  was 
deeply  engraven  on  his  heart.  He  was  immediately  killed, 
his  heart  extracted,  and  the  name  was  actually  found  clearly 
represented  on  it ! 

A company  from  Germany  who  had  visited  the  Holy  Land 
were  just  about  going  on  board  ship  on  their  return.  As  mass 
was  about  to  be  performed  in  a church  near  by,  one  of  the 
company  declared  that  he  could  never  neglect  or  turn  away 
from  this  solemn  ceremony,  and  determined  to  attend,  even 
though  he  should  lose  his  passage.  The  vessel  sailed  without 
him,  and  he  started  on  his  pilgrimage  home  on  foot.  He  was 
soon  overtaken  by  a person  on  horseback,  who  asked  him  to 
ride.  In  the  course  of  a few  hours,  during  which  the  time 
was  beguiled  with  delightful  religious  conversation,  he  found 
himself  at  his  cottage  door  in  Germany ; and  his  conductor, 
who  proved  an  apparition  of  some  celestial  being,  vanished. 
The  less  pious  and  scrupulous  of  the  party  arrived  at  home  in 
the  ordinary  course  of  travel  in  about  two  months. 

An  earnest  believer  who  determined  to  go  regularly  to 
mass,  though  his  employer  insisted  on  his  keeping  busy  at  the 
plough,  was  relieved  by  an  angel  in  the  form  of  a farm  laborer, 
who  attended  the  plough  while  the  laborer  was  absent  at  the 
service. 

Scoffers  and  unbelievers  are  dealt  with  in  this  book  in  a 
very  summary  and  frightful  manner.  Once  upon  a time,  when 
a “ good  Catholic  ” was  going  somewhere  on  a pilgrimage  to 
obtain  sacred  ashes,  he  was  told  by  a person  with  whom  he 
was  stopping  by  the  way  that  he  could  get  enough  ashes  in 
his  kitchen  without  going  any  farther ; whereupon  the  heap 
of  ashes  in  the  kitchen  was  lifted  up  by  a furious  wind  and 
blown  into  his  eyes,  ears,  and  nose,  tormenting  and  frighten- 
ing him  to  such  an  extent  that,  in  his  frenzy,  he  jumped  into 
the  canal  and  drowned  himself.  On  another  occasion,  a per- 


SINCERITY  AND  CONSTANCY  OF  CONVERTS.  415 


son  unfriendly  to  the  holy  religion  was  ridiculing  the  elevating 
of  the  host  among  a company  of  friends  at  dinner  by  going 
through  the  forms  connected  with  that  ceremony  by  way  of 
amusement.  When  his  hands  were  uplifted  in  the  act  of 
blessing  the  host,  to  the  horror  of  all  present,  they  were  imme- 
diately fixed  in  that  posture,  and  remained  so  through  life ; so 
that  when  he  was  buried,  a coffin  was  made  of  a peculiar  shape 
adapted  to  accommodate  this  unnatural  position  of  the  body ! 

These  are  samples  of  the  kind  of  matter  of  which  this  book 
is  full.  From  the  foregoing  statements  and  representations 
taken  from  the  Roman  Catholic  literature  of  China,  the  reader 
can  draw  his  own  inference  respecting  the  character  of  the 
missionaries  and  native  Christians  of  that  Church.  I would 
not  be  understood,  however,  as  presenting  this  book  as  a fair 
sample  of  their  literature  generally,  though  many  others  have 
a strong  resemblance  to  it.  That  one  such  book  is  sanctioned 
and  tolerated  in  this  enlightened  age  by  the  adherents  of  any 
religion,  Christian  or  pagan,  may  well  excite  our  wonder. 
That  there  are  many  persons  among  the  missionaries  and  con- 
verts of  the  Romish  Church  in  China  who  are  honest  and  sin- 
cere in  their  religious  convictions,  I do  not  doubt.  I rejoice  to 
hope  and  believe  also,  that  the  truth  of  God,  though  held  by 
them  in  a corrupted  form,  and  with  a large  admixture  of  the 
commandments  of  men,  has,  by  the  blessing  of  God,  been  the 
means  of  the  spiritual  regeneration  and  salvation  of  many.  In 
the  language  of  Dr.  Williams,  to  whose  admirable  work  on 
China  I have  so  often  had  occasion  to  refer,  “ The  letters  of 
some  of  the  missionaries  to  their  own  friends  breathe  a spirit 
of  pious  ardor  and  true  Christian  principle  worthy  of  all 
imitation.  * * * * Many  of  their  converts  also  exhibit  the 
greatest  constancy  in  their  profession,  suffering  persecution, 
torture,  imprisonment,  banishment,  and  death,  rather  than 
deny  their  faith,  though  every  inducement  of  prevarication 
and  mental  reservation  was  held  out  to  them  by  the  magis- 
trates to  avoid  the  necessity  of  proceeding  to  extreme  meas- 
ures. If  suffering  the  loss  of  all  things  is  an  evidence  of 


416 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


piety,  many  of  them  have  proved  their  title  to  it  in  many  ways. 
But  until  there  shall  be  a complete  separation  from  idolatry 
and  superstition ; until  the  confessional  shall  be  abolished,  and 
the  worship  of  the  Virgin,  wearing  crosses  and  rosaries,  and 
reliance  on  ceremonies  and  penances  be  stopped;  until  the 
entire  Scriptures  and  Decalogue  be  given  to  the  converts ; 
and  until,  in  short,  the  great  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith 
be  substituted  for  the  many  forms  of  justification  by  works, 
the  mass  of  converts  to  Romanism  in  China  can  hardly  be  con- 
sidered as  much  better  than  baptized  pagans.  Their  works 
and  influence  upon  their  pagan  countrymen  show  how  little 
leaven  of  godliness  there  has  been  in  the  lump,  and  both  priest 
and  people  can  not  well  refuse  to  be  judged  by  evidence  fur- 
nished by  themselves.” 

That  such  a religion,  holding,  though  imperfectly,  the  great 
truths  of  the  unity  of  God  and  salvation  through  a Redeemer, 
and  thus  contrasting  favorably  with  the  gross  forms  of  Chinese 
idolatry,  while,  at  the  same  time,  it  adapts  itself  to  the  cus- 
toms and  prejudices  of  the  people,  should  speedily  gain  cur- 
rency among  such  a people  as  the  Chinese,  is  not  surprising. 
It  will  no  doubt  have  a powerful  influence  in  co-operating  with 
other  causes  to  subvert  and  overthrow  the  existing  systems  of 
idolatry;  but  we  may  not  look  to  it  to  supply  the  Chinese 
with  a pure,  vital,  and  aggressive  Christianity.  It  may  spread 
rapidly  at  first,  but  it  can  not  bear  the  ordeal  of  free  discus- 
sion, which  it  must  ere  long  meet  with.  At  present,  in  so 
wide  a field,  the  representatives  of  the  Romish  and  the  Prot- 
estant Churches  labor  apart.  But  when  the  influence  of  both 
shall  have  extended,  and  the  reign  of  Buddhism  and  Tauism 
shall  have  passed  away,  the  struggle  will  ultimately  be  in  the 
East,  as  in  the  West,  between  the  two  forms  of  Christianity, 
Protestantism  and  Popery.  The  appeal  will  be  to  the  sacred 
Scriptures,  the  common  ground  of  our  faith.  Our  confidence 
as  to  the  result  is  in  the  power  of  God’s  truth,  accompanied 
by  the  blessing  of  His  Spirit. 


THE  LEADER  “OF  THE  TAI-PING  REBELLION.  417 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

THE  TAI-PIN  G-  REBELLION. 

The  Interest  which  has  been  felt  by  Western  Nations  in  the  Tai-ping  Re- 
bellion.— Early  Life  of  Hung-sew-tswen. — He  receives  the  Bible  and 
Tracts  from  Missionaries. — His  Sickness  and  fancied  Revelations. — His 
Attention  is  directed  anew  to  the  Christian  Books. — He  constructs  from 
them  a new  System  of  Religion,  commences  propagating  it,  and  gains 
many  Converts. — The  Steps  by  which  the  Adherents  of  this  corrupt 
Eorm  of  Christianity  became  an  Insurgent  Army.— The  long  Struggle 
for  Empire,  and  the  final  Defeat  and  Overthrow  of  the  Tai-ping  Rebel- 
lion. 

Few  events  connected  with  China  have  within  the  last 
twenty  years  excited  as  much  interest  in  Western  lands,  or 
been  as  often  referred  to  in  our  public  prints,  as  the  rebellions 
and  civil  Avars  which  are  desolating  different  parts  of  the 
country,  and  producing  the  impression  in  the  minds  of  some 
not  familiarly  acquainted  with  the  character  and  history  of 
the  government  that  a state  of  strife  and  anarchy  is  its  nor- 
mal condition.  The  great  Tai-ping  Rebellion  is  of  special  in- 
terest to  us  on  account  of  its  religious,  or,  rather,  Christian 
character ; and  for  this  reason,  as  Avell  as  on  account  of  its 
great  influence  on  the  present  condition  and  future  prospects 
of  China,  it  merits  a special  consideration. 

This  remarkable  movement  originated  with  a man  named 
Hung-sew-tSAven,  who  was  born  in  a small  town  near  Canton 
in  the  year  1813.  Though  of  a poor  family,  as  he  gave  early 
evidence  of  a bright  intellect  and  aptness  for  study,  his  par- 
ents and  friends  gave  him  the  advantages  of  a Chinese  educa- 
tion ; and  when  about  twenty  years  of  age,  he  is  found  taking 
part  in  the  literary  examinations  at  Canton.  Some  time  be- 
tAveen  the  years  1833  and  1836,  while  attending  these  exam- 

S 2 


418 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


inations,  he  received  from  the  native  preacher  Liang-a-fah 
some  Christian  tracts,  and  portions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment Scriptures.  These  seem  to  have  been  carelessly  read,  and 
to  have  produced  at  the  time  but  little  effect  upon  his  mind. 
In  1837  he  returned  home  from  the  literary  examinations,  in 
tvhich  he  had  been  again  unsuccessful,  seriously  ill,  and  in  a 
desponding  state  of  mind.  During  his  sickness,  which  con- 
tinued for  more  than  a month,  he  was  subject  to  mental  aber- 
ration, and  regarded  himself  as  being  favored  with  supernat- 
ural manifestations  and  revelations.  He  thought  that  he  was 
washed  from  the  impurities  of  his  nature ; that  he  had  a new 
heart  given  to  him ; and  was  introduced  into  the  presence  of 
an  august  being,  who  exhorted  him  to  lead  a virtuous  life  and 
exterminate  demons.  During  his  sickness  he  also  “ often  saw 
a man  of  middle  age,  whom  he  called  his  elder  brother,  who 
instructed  him  how  to  act,  accompanied  him  in  his  wander- 
ings to  the  uttermost  regions  in  search  of  evil  spirits,  and  as- 
sisted him  in  slaying  and  exterminating  them.”  These  fan- 
cied revelations  seem  to  have  produced  a deep  impression  on 
his  mind,  and  to  have  changed  his  character  and  outward  de- 
meanor, though,  after  his  recovery,  he  returned  to  his  quiet 
occupation  as  a student  and  village  school-teacher. 

In  the  year  1843,  just  after  the  war  with  England,  and  the 
establishment  of  new  relations  with  Western  nations,  when  it 
was  natural  for  the  minds  of  the  natives  to  be  directed  toward 
foreigners,  a friend  of  Hung,  whose  name  was  Le,  was  led  to 
read  the  foreign  books  in  Hung’s  library,  which  it  appears  had 
been  disregarded  for  years.  He  became  much  interested,  and 
through  him  they  were  again  brought  before  the  attention  of 
Hung,  and  were  the  means  of  giving  a new  shape  to  his  life, 
and  opening  before  him  a new  and  remarkable  career.  “ He 
was  greatly  astonished  to  find  in  these  books  the  key  to  his 
own  visions  which  he  had  six  years  before.  He  now  under- 
stood the  venerable  old  man  who  sat  upon  the  highest  place, 
and  whom  all  men  ought  to  worship,  to  be  God,  the  Heavenly 
Father ; and  the  man  of  middle  age  who  had  instructed  him, 


SPREAD  OF  THE  NEW  RELIGION. 


419 


and  assisted  him  in  exterminating  the  demons,  to  be  Jesus, 
the  Saviour  of  the  world ; the  demons  were  the  idols.” 

The  conviction  now  fixed  itself  upon  his  mind  that  he  had 
held  real  communications  with  the  God  of  Heaven,  and  had 
been  intrusted  by  Him  with  a special  mission.  He  and  his 
friend  Le  studied  carefully,  and  thought  deeply  on  the  sub- 
jects treated  of  in  these  books.  By  degrees  they  developed  a 
system  of  religion  containing  a modicum  of  Christian  truth, 
together  with  many  singular  misconceptions,  and  vagaries 
of  their  imaginations.  They  baptized  each  other,  and  com- 
menced propagating  among  their  friends  and  neighbors  this 
new  and  remarkable  form  of  Christianity.  The  first  con- 
verts were  made  in  the  vicinity  of  their  own  home,  including 
several  literary  men  or  teachers,  and  the  parents,  brothers, 
and  relatives  of  Hung.  Among  the  teachers  was  one,  Fung- 
yun-san,  who  afterward  became  a prominent  actor  in  the  his- 
tory of  this  new  movement.  He  and  Hung,  after  losing  their 
pupils  in  consequence  of  having  removed  the  tablet  of  Con- 
fucius and  abolished  the  religious  rites  paid  to  him  in  the 
school,  left  their  home  in  the  beginning  of  1844  to  preach  in 
other  parts,  hoping  to  support  themselves  by  selling  ink  and 
writing-pencils.  After  visiting  numerous  places  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Ivwang-se,  they  spent  some  months  with  a relative  of 
Hung  living  in  the  southern  part  of  the  province,  and  made 
there  more  than  one  hundred  converts.  Fung-yun-san,  fear- 
ing to  be  burdensome  to  Hung’s  relatives,  left  with  the  inten- 
tion of  returning  home.  On  his  way,  he  met  some  workmen 
with  whom  he  was  acquainted,  and  remained  with  them,  as- 
sisting in  their  occupation  of  carrying  earth,  and  at  the  same 
time  propagating  his  religion  among  them.  “ Ten  of  them 
soon  became  his  converts ; and  having  introduced  him  to  the 
notice  of  their  employer,  the  latter  engaged  him  as  a teacher, 
and  was  shortly  after  himself  baptized.  Fung-yun-san  was 
thus  enabled  to  remain  several  years  in  the  neighborhood, 
preaching  with  great  zeal  and  such  success  that  whole  fami- 
lies of  various  surnames  and  clans  were  baptized,  formed  con- 


420 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


gregations  among  themselves,  and  became  extensively  known 
under  the  name  of  the  ‘ Society  of  God-worshipers.’  ” 

Hung-sew-tswen,  soon  after  Fung  had  left  him,  also  re- 
turned home,  and  spent  his  time  studying  and  writing  on  re- 
ligious subjects  and  teaching  others.  In  the  summer  of  1847 
he  went  to  Canton,  where  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Mr. 
Roberts,  an  American  missionary  of  the  Baptist  Church,  and 
received  instruction  from  him  for  two  months.  He  then  ap- 
plied for  baptism,  and  for  a position  in  connection  with  Mr. 
Roberts  as  a native  preacher  or  assistant.  Both  of  these  pro- 
posals Mr.  Roberts  declined,  probably  fearing,  from  his  asking 
a place,  that  he  was  actuated  by  mercenary  motives.  Foreign 
missionaries  ‘frequently  meet  with  applications  of  this  kind ; 
and  Mr.  Roberts  seems  to  have  regarded  this  case  as  not  dif- 
fering particularly  from  others,  little  dreaming  of  the  bold  un- 
dertaking which  this  poor  and  obscure  country  school-teacher 
was  about  to  initiate. 

Leaving  Canton,  he  went  into  Kwang-se  to  visit  his  rela- 
tives, through  whom  he  learned  of  the  movements  of  Fung- 
yun-san,  and  of  his  success  in  propagating  the  new  faith.  He 
immediately  visited  the  converts  there,  and  found  that  they 
had  increased  to  about  two  thousand  persons,  and  that  acces- 
sions were  constantly  made  to  their  numbers  from  the  sur- 
rounding districts.  He  was  welcomed  by  these  co-religionists 
as  the  founder  of  their  sect,  and  his  presence  and  sujierior 
knowledge  and  ability  gave  a new  impulse  to  the  movement. 
The  God-worshipers  soon  attracted  the  attention  of  the  people, 
and  their  known  and  avowed  purpose  to  destroy  idolatry  ex- 
cited suspicion  and  alarm.  It  was  not  long  before  complaints 
were  made  against  them  as  a corrupt,  dangerous,  and  rebel- 
lious sect;  and  Fung-yun-san  and  another  person  who  had 
been  a prominent  iconoclast  were  cast  into  prison.  The  latter 
died  m jail,  and  the  local  authorities  determined  to  send  the 
former,  in  charge  of  two  policemen,  to  his  native  district. 
“ During  the  journey,  Fung-yun-san,  in  his  usual  manner, 
spoke  with  great  eloquence  and  in  persuasive  language  about 


CONFLICT  WITH  THE  CIVIL  AUTHORITIES.  421 


the  doctrine,  and  they  had  not  walked  many  miles  before  the 
two  policemen  were  won  as  converts.  They  not  only  agreed 
to  set  him  at  liberty  instantly,  but  declared  themselves  willing 
to  abandon  their  own  station  and  follow  Fung  to  the  congre- 
gation at  Thistle  Mount,  where  he  soon  after  introduced  them 
as  candidates  for  baptism.” 

While  the  prime  actors  in  establishing  this  new  religion 
were  travelling  hither  and  thither  on  different  missions,  new 
developments  were  taking  place  among  the  God-worshipers 
in  Kwang-se.  In  their  congregations  for  worship  persons 
would  sometimes  fall  down  in  a fit  or  trance,  and  give  utter- 
ance to  alleged  revelations,  prophecies,  etc.  Records  were 
made  of  many  of  these  utterances,  which  seem  to  have  varied 
so  much  in  their  character  that  some  were  regarded  as  coming 
from  God,  and  some  from  the  devil.  Particular  persons  be- 
came noted  for  their  revelations,  and  were  regarded  as  the  ac- 
knowledged instruments  for  communicating  the  Divine  Will. 

It  was  impossible  for  such  a community  to  exist  long  with- 
out coming  to  an  open  outbreak  with  the  authorities,  and  such 
an  event  took  place  in  the  autumn  of  1850.  The  position  of 
the  God-worshipers  now  became  perilous  in  the  extreme. 
They  were  in  danger  of  being  sought  out  and  exterminated  as 
a corrupt  and  dangerous  element  in  the  body-politic.  While 
they  were  obliged  to  sacrifice  their  lives  or  fight  in  self-de- 
fense, their  rapid  increase  in  numbers,  and  the  fancied  favor 
and  protection  of  the  God  they  worshiped,  encouraged  them 
to  undertake  aggressive  movements,  with  the  object  not  only 
of  propagating  their  faith,  but  also  of  establishing  an  inde- 
pendent empire. 

The  members  of  this  religious  society,  converting  their 
property  into  ready-money,  cast  it  into  a common  fund  or 
treasury.  Hung-sew-tswen  organized  them  into  an  army,  and 
introduced  the  strictest  discipline.  They  first  attacked  indi- 
viduals and  towns  which  had  opposed  and  persecuted  them 
on  account  of  their  religion,  and  obtained  without  difficulty 
all  needed  supplies  of  food  and  clothing.  The  disaffected  of 


422 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


tlie  people  flocked  to  their  standard,  and  numerous  bands  of 
robbers  and  banditti  gave  in  their  adherence,  were  instructed 
in  some  degree  in  the  doctrines  and  forms  of  the  new  religion, 
and  incorporated  as  a part  of  the  army.  The  troops  sent  by 
the  government  to  suppress  this  insurrection  were  scattered 
like  chaff  before  the  wind ; city  after  city  fell  before  the  tri- 
umphant march  of  these  God-worshipers,  and  the  whole  em- 
pire was  struck  with  surprise  and  terror. 

Hung-sew-tswen,  elated  with  success,  and  confirmed  in  his 
belief  of  his  divine  commission,  aspired  to  higher  prerogatives, 
and  projected  bolder  plans.  He  proclaimed  himself  the  head 
of  a new  kingdom  styled  Tai-ping  tien  fcwoh — “ The  Peace- 
ful Heavenly  Kingdom,”  and  assumed  the  title  of  Son  of 
Heaven.  Christ  was  familiarly  spoken  of  as  his  brother, 
and  he  professed  to  have  frequent  communications  from  the 
Heavenly  Father.  Many  views  of  his  character  and  mission 
seem  to  have  been  derived  from  the  Pentateuch.  As  Moses 
was  called  of  God  to  be  his  medium  of  communication  with 
the  Israelites,  and  to  found  a new  religion  and  kingdom,  ex- 
terminating the  Canaanites  and  destroying  every  vestige  of 
idolatry,  so  he  regarded  himself  as  the  chosen  instrument  of 
God  to  declare  his  will,  and  establish  a new  Chinese  dynasty; 
driving  out  the  Manchus,  and  introducing  the  worship  of  the 
living  and  true  God  in  the  place  of  the  false  gods  of  Confu- 
cianism, Buddhism,  and  Tauism. 

Religious  worship  was  kept  up  in  the  camp.  The  Sabbath 
was  observed,  the  day  chosen  by  them  being  our  Saturday, 
or  the  Jewish  Sabbath.  The  Scriptures  were  read  and  ex- 
pounded according  to  their  understanding  of  them ; prayers 
were  offered;  hymns  and  doxologies  sung  in  honor  of  the 
Triune  God ; and  eloquent  preachers  exhorted  the  multitude, 
urging  them  to  honor  and  obey  God,  to  be  faithful  to  his 
vicegerent  the  new  Emperor,  and  to  fight  bravely  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  “heavenly  dynasty;”  promising  positions 
of  honor  and  influence  in  the  new  state,  as  well  as  eternal 
blessedness  in  heaven.  It  is  said  that  before  battle  they  oft- 


BRAVERY  AND  SUCCESS  OF  THE  INSURGENTS.  423 


en  knelt  dawn  under  the  open  heaven  and  invoked  the  protec- 
tion and  assistance  of  the  Heavenly  Father,  and  then  charged 
upon  their  enemies  with  the  assurance  of  success.  The  strong 
bond  of  union  produced  by  common  dangers,  mutual  depend- 
ence, common  religious  sympathies,  and  a common  aim,  with 
a faith  in  their  destiny,  and  their  strong  religious  or  fanatic- 
al zeal,  gave  them  a power  which  the  imperial  armies  could 
not  withstand.  When  towns  or  cities  submitted  to  their  au- 
thority without  opposition,  they  were  treated  with  leniency ; 
when  they  denied  and  resisted  their  claims,  they  were  regard- 
ed as  acting  in  opposition  to  the  will  of  Heaven,  and  conse- 
quently as  having  forfeited  their  lives,  and  were  devoted  to 
indiscriminate  slaughter. 

Such,  in  general,  was  the  character  of  this  remarkable  or- 
ganization which  spread  terror  and  desolation  through  the 
interior  provinces  of  the  empire.  Their  course  from  Kwang- 
se  was  to  the  north.  Traversing  the  northern  part  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Kwang-se,  the  whole  of  the  province  of  Ho-nan  and  part 
of  Hoo-peh,  a distance  of  about  six  hundred  miles,  they  reached 
the  largest  trading-mart  of  China,  Wu-chang,  situated  on  the 
Great  River.  Capturing  and  plundering  this  place  with  its 
suburbs,  and  destroying  a considerable  part  of  it,  they  pro- 
ceeded down  the  river  by  boats,  and,  after  taking  other  less 
important  cities,  possessed  themselves  of  Rankin,  which  Hung- 
sew-tswen  determined  to  make  the  capital  of  his  new  king- 
dom. So  terrified  were  the  Tartar  garrison  of  this  great  and 
powerful  city  that  they  gave  up  all  hope  of  resistance  and 
plead  for  mercy.  Belonging,  however,  to  a race  which  the 
insurgents  regarded  as  usurpers,  and  which,  when  they  con- 
quered China,  slaughtered  millions  of  its  inhabitants,  they 
were  all  put  to  death,  men,  women,  and  children,  to  the  num- 
ber of  about  twenty  thousand. 

When  the  Tai-pings  had  established  themselves  in  Ran- 
kin, they  addressed  themselves  to  the  work  of  subjugating 
the  empire.  A very  important  expedition  started  north  for 
the  purpose  of  taking  Pekin.  The  entire  failure  of  this  en- 


424 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


terprise  gave  to  the  rebellion  a serious  check,  and  encouraged 
the  reigning  dynasty  in  putting  it  down.  Other  expeditions 
in  different  provinces  were  more  successful,  and  many  dis- 
tricts and  parts  of  provinces  were  obliged  to  submit  for  a 
longer  or  shorter  time  to  the  control  of  the  dreaded  Chang- 
mao.* 

For  some  years  there  seemed  to  be  much  reason  to  fear 
that  the  reigning  dynasty  would  be  exhausted  and  overpower- 
ed, and  that  the  rebels  would  establish  their  rule  over  the 
eighteen  provinces.  Some  foreigners  hoped  that  the  rebels 
might  possess  themselves  of  the  empire,  found  a beneficent 
government,  enter  into  more  friendly  relations  with  Western 
nations,  and  adopt  modern  ideas  and  a Christian  civiliza- 
tion. 

These  hopes,  however,  were  doomed  to  disappointment. 
Camp-life  was  not  found  favorable  to  the  cultivation  of  religion 
and  morality.  Many  of  the  better  class  of  the  rebels  died  on 
the  battle-field  or  in  the  camp,  and  their  places  were  supplied 
by  persons  of  a very  inferior  character.  Their  form  of  relig- 
ion became  more  and  more  corrupt,  and  the  religious  element, 
which  was  their  principal  source  of  strength,  became  weaker 
and  weaker. 

Hung,  while  continuing  to  profess  great  respect  and  friend- 
ship for  Christian  nations,  calling  foreigners  brethren,  and 
seeming  desirous  of  entering  into  cordial  relations  with  them, 
assumed  a pre-eminence  and  arrogance  almost  exceeding  that 
of  the  Emperors  of  the  reigning  dynasty.  He  spoke  of  his  own 
revelations  from  heaven  as  having  the  same  authority  as  those 
in  the  Scriptures,  and  as  being  of  more  importance,  and,  in 
some  instances,  superseding  those  of  the  Bible  on  account  of 
their  being  more  recent.  His  religious  views  became  more 
* Chang-mao,  or  “ Long-haired,”  was  the  name  almost  universally  given 
to  the  rebels  by  the  Chinese.  The  shaving  of  the  front  part  of  the  head 
is  a Manchu  custom,  and  was  imposed  upon  the  Chinese  after  their  subju-  . 
gation  as  a token  of  allegiance.  The  rebels,  throwing  off  their  allegiance, 
allowed  the  hair  to  grow,  and  so  were  called  “Long-hairs,”  this  being  a 
synonym  for  rebels. 


DEMORALIZATION  OF  THE  INSURGENTS. 


425 


and  more  erratic  and  fanatical,  and  naturally  suggested  the 
idea  of  a certain  degree  of  mental  aberration.  Some  of  our 
most  intelligent  missionaries  succeeded  in  reaching  his  capi- 
tal several  years  after  his  establishment  in  Nankin,  and  were 
kindly  received,  but  were  able  to  exercise  no  influence  over 
him.  Mr.  Roberts  was  invited  to  take  an  office  under  the 
new  government,  which  he  accepted ; but  finding  that  he  could 
accomplish  nothing,  and  that  his  position  was  far  from  being 
a desirable  or  comfortable  one,  left  Nankin  in  disgust. 

The  character  and  acts  of  the  military  chiefs  deteriorated 
even  more  rapidly  than  that  of  their  leader.  They  began  to 
act  independently  of  their  head,  and  to  quarrel  among  them- 
selves. Corruption  and  disaffection  spread  among  the  subor- 
dinate officers  and  soldiers.  The  Tai-pings  were  still  able  to 
ravage  and  desolate  the  provinces,  but  they  showed  very  little 
ability  for  reorganization  and  pacification.  The  more  wealthy 
and  influential  classes  refused  to  trust  them,  or  to  recognize 
in  them  the  future  rulers  and  tranquilizers  of  the  empire. 

In  the  mean  time,  hoping  to  retrieve  their  waning  fortunes, 
the  rebels  endeavored  to  take  possession  of  the  coast  provin- 
ces, and  avail  themselves  of  the  advantages  of  the  commerce 
of  their  ports.  They  were  driven  back,  however,  from  Shang- 
hai by  English  forces,  aided  by  the  Chinese.  They  succeeded 
in  taking  Ningpo  with  very  little  opposition  and  very  little 
bloodshed,  and  seemed  desirous  of  continuing  on  friendly 
terms  with  us  and  engaging  in  foreign  trade.  They  were, 
however,  soon  driven  out  from  that  city  by  English  troops ; 
and  chiefly  by  the  aid  of  the  English,  the  capital  cities  of  Su- 
chow  and  Hang-chow,  with  others  of  less  note,  were  wrested 
from  them.  It  is  due  to  them  to  say  that,  notwithstanding 
their  intercourse  with  and  treatment  by  foreign  nations  was 
calculated  to  embitter  their  minds  and  give  rise  to  resentment 
and  retaliation,  foreign  residents  in  Ningpo  and  foreign  trav- 
ellers who  visited  them  in  the  interior  were  almost  invari- 
ably received  with  cordiality  and  respect,  and  treated  with 
kindness. 


426 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


Driven  out  of  tlieir  strongholds  in  the  Kiang-su  and  the 
Che-kiang  provinces,  they  retired  to  Nankin.  Here  they  were 
reduced  to  great  straits ; but  having  experienced  relief  and 
succor  in  similar  circumstances  before,  they  still  kept  up  an 
obstinate  defense,  hoping  that  the  tide  of  fortune  would  again 
turn  in  their  favor.  The  Chinese  authorities  were  so  sure 
of  capturing  this  city  and  crushing  out  the  rebellion  that  they 
insisted  on  finishing  the  work  alone,  and  the  English  troops 
withdrew. 

In  the  summer  of  1864  an  immense  besieging  army  could 
be  seen  from  the  decks  of  foreign  steamers  which  were  con- 
stantly traversing  the  great  river,  completely  surrounding  the 
doomed  city  of  Nankin.  It  had  for  years  been  emptied  of  its 
numerous  and  cultivated  inhabitants,  tens  of  thousands  of 
whom,  reared  in  luxury,  had  wandered  about  as  refugees,  and 
died  of  exposure,  grief,  and  starvation.  It  was  now  a milita- 
ry camp,  and  a scene  of  desolation.  Many  of  the  rebels,  an- 
ticipating the  result  of  the  siege,  had  escaped,  and  joined  in- 
surgent and  predatory  bands  in  other  parts.  Some  of  those 
who  remained  might  be  seen  fishing  on  the  banks  of  the  river, 
secure  from  the  occasional  shots  of  the  enemy,  who  kept  at  a 
safe  distance  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  stream.  It  was  evi- 
dently the  intention  of  the  besieging  army  to  reduce  to  starv- 
ation those  whom  they  knew  would  expect  no  quarter,  and 
would  sell  their  lives  as  dearly  as  possible. 

In  July,  1864,  Nankin,  the  last  stronghold  of  the  Tai-ping 
rebels,  who  had  struggled  for  the  empire  for  fourteen  years, 
was  taken,  and,  with  its  fall,  the  last  hope  of  the  Tai-ping  dy- 
nasty perished.  Hung-sew-tswen  committed  suicide,  but  many 
of  his  officers  and  soldiers  were  captured  and  executed. 

A movement  of  such  vast  proportions,  and  continuing  for 
so  many  years,  though  failing  in  its  special  object,  could  not 
but  produce  great  changes  and  results. 

It  effected  foreign  nations,  in  cutting  off  in  a measure  the 
supplies  and  closing  up  the  channels  of  trade.  It  has  devasta- 
ted some  of  the  richest  and  most  beautiful  portions  of  the 


THE  END  OF  THE  TAI-PING  REBELLION. 


427 


Chinese  Empire,  leaving  behind  it  tracts  of  desolation,  mark- 
ed for  hundreds  of  miles  by  blackened  walls  and  heaps  of  ru- 
ins, uncultivated  fields,  and  depopulated  towns  and  cities. 
The  present  dynasty  has  received  a blow  from  which  it  will 
not  soon  recover.  Its  treasury  has  been  exhausted,  its  re- 
sources drained ; its  people  have  become  accustomed  to  the 
idea  of  rebellion,  and  various  independent  insurrections  have 
been  and  still  are  springing  up  in  different  parts  of  the  em- 
pire. 


428 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

PRESENT  CONDITION  AND  PROSPECTS  OF  THE  CHINESE 
EMPIRE. 

The  Present  of  China  a Period  of  Transition. — Her  Aversion  to  Change. — 
Various  Causes  conspiring  to  introduce  a new  Order  of  Things. — Gener- 
al Principle  of  Development  and  Decline. — The  History  of  China  a Suc- 
cession of  Dynasties. — Local  Insurrections  and  Rebellions. — Influences 
brought  to  bear  upon  China  from  foreign  Lands. — Wars  with  England 
and  Prance. — The  necessary  Effect  of  a Knowledge  of  the  Modem  Arts 
and  Sciences,  and  of  Christianity. — The  Influence  upon  China  of  the 
Chinese  who  return  Home  from  California. — The  Government  adopts 
Western  Rules  of  International  La_w. — Chinese  Youths  studying  For- 
eign Languages  with  a View  to  being  Interpreters. — The  Policy  of  the 
Empire  principally  influenced  by  the  Exigencies  of  her  present  Position, 
and  the  Advice  of  Foreign  Ministers  and  Employes  in  Pekin. — A Uni- 
versity for  teaching  the  Modern  Sciences  has  been  established. — The 
Origin,  Character,  and  Results  of  the  Chinese  Embassy. — The  Party  of 
Progress,  and  the  Objects  for  which  they  are  striving.  — The  present 
Status  of  Missionaries. — China  irrevocably  committed  to  Reform  and 
Progress. 

The  present  of  China  is  emphatically  a period  of  transi- 
tion. As  seen  by  a superficial  observer,  she  appears  the  same 
now  that  she  has  been  for  ages.  The  philosophy  of  Confu- 
cius still  sways  the  minds  of  her  inhabitants.  The  system  of 
competitive  examinations  is  strictly  observed,  as  in  former 
times.  Xo  idol  temples  have  been  destroyed,  no  ancient  rites 
discontinued,  no  national  usages  or  social  customs  changed. 
Still,  there  are  causes  in  operation,  and  changes  being  wrought 
beneath  the  surface,  which  must  result  in  a complete  revolu- 
tion of  ideas,  and  affect  the  whole  aspect  of  the  nation.  The 
present  condition  of  China  may  be  compared  to  that  of  a 
river  covered  with  ice  in  the  early  spring.  The  genial  sun 
shines  upon  it,  and  the  warm  winds  breathe  upon  it,  but  it  re- 


PRESENT  CONDITION  OF  THE  TSING  DYNASTY.  429 


sists  every  softening  influence,  and  retains  the  stern  and  un- 
changing aspect  of  winter.  In  a few  favored  spots,  the  sun 
has  melted  its  congealed  surface,  and  the  limpid  water  reflects 
the  beauties  of  sky  and  landscape,  or  leaps  and  sparkles  under 
the  passing  breeze.  Still,  the  great  river,  day  after  day,  and 
week  after  week  remains,  to  outward  appearances,  as  it  was. 
But  the  influences  at  work  above  and  beneath  can  not  be  re- 
sisted, and  that  impenetrable  covering,  spread  over  so  vast  an 
extent,  must  either  be  swept  away  by  the  flood,  or  silently  dis- 
solve and  disappear. 

To  bring  about  a new  order  of  things  in  China,  different 
causes  are  co-operating  from  within  and  from  without.  It 
must  be  remembered  that  civil  wars  and  rebellions  have  been 
doing  their  work  there  for  more  than  fifteen  years.  These 
protracted  and  exhausting  struggles  generally  mark  the  decline 
and  termination  of  individual  dynasties,  of  which  the  whole 
history  of  China  is  made  up.  It  is  firmly  believed  by  the 
people  that  national  life,  like  vegetable  and  animal,  has  its  pe- 
riod of  growth  and  development,  and  then  of  decline  and  de- 
cay. It  is  not,  however,  the  nation  that  dies,  but  the  dynasty, 
while  the  nation  lives  on  through  the  dynasties  ; just  as  a tree 
passing  every  year  through  the  same  succession  of  develop- 
ment and  decay,  still  continues  to  grow  in  size  and  strength. 
This  idea,  which  may  be  called  a national  one,  has  been  strik- 
ingly expressed  in  an  antithetical  sentence  found  in  a celebra- 
ted historical  novel,  and  familiarly  quoted  even  by  many  who 
can  not  read — “ The  great  power  of  the  empire,  when  long  di- 
vided, will  be  reunited ; when  long  united,  will  be  divided.” 

The  present,  which  is  a Tartar  dynasty,  has  ruled  the  empire 
for  about  two  hundred  years.  It  has  furnished  several  noted 
Emperors,  and  established  a proud  record.  The  reigning 
house  has  still  noble  and  patriotic  men  connected  with  it,  but 
corruption  in  the  capital  and  in  the  provinces  is  sapping  the 
very  foundations  on  which  it  rests.  The  people  and  their 
rulers  have,  in  a great  measure,  mutually  lost  confidence  in 
each  other  ; and  as  the  great  Chinese  sage  has  truly  said,  “A 


430 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


nation  may  more  easily  exist  without  an  army  and  without 
provisions,  than  without  faith”  Wars  have  exhausted  the 
treasury ; the  officers,  being  almost  obliged,  in  order  to  sup- 
port themselves,  to  resort  to  exaction,  and  to  receive  bribes, 
have  become  unblushingly  familiar  with  these  practices,  and 
not  a few  make  use  of  them  to  the  extent  of  amassing  immense 
fortunes.  Thus  the  poverty  and  demoralization  which  are  re- 
garded as  an  excuse  for  extortion  and  oppression  are  constant- 
ly increasing.  Offices  are  sold  in  order  to  replenish  the  pub- 
lic coffers,  and  disappointed  scholars,  who  are  thus  shut  out 
from  the  hope  of  preferment,  help  to  spread  discontent  among 
the  people.  Ill-disposed,  turbulent,  and  ambitious  persons  or- 
ganize bands  of  robbers,  which  are  recruited  from  those  who 
are  pinched  by  want,  or  outraged  by  oppression,  or  those  who 
have  been  taken  captives  by  violence,  but  choose  to  cast  in 
their  lot  with  their  captors  rather  than  return  to  desolated 
homes  and  a life  of  privation.  One  of  these  predatory  bands 
but  a few  months  since  approached  very  near  to  the  capital, 
and  threatened  to  cut  off  its  communication  with  the  coast. 
The  numerous  independent  rebellions  which  are  springing  up 
in  different  parts  of  the  empire,  Avhile  they  are  evidences  of 
the  weakness  of  the  government,  tend  to  weaken  it  still  fur- 
ther, and  matters  have  been  proceeding  from  bad  to  worse. 

The  people  are  evidently  not  expecting  the  immediate  re- 
turn of  peace,  order,  and  good  government.  In  the  central 
provinces,  multitudes  of  villages  and  cities  which  were  de- 
vastated by  the  Tai-ping  rebels  are  being  rebuilt  in  an  imper- 
fect manner,  and  with  less  regard  to  permanency  than  to  sup- 
plying the  imperative  wants  of  the  present.  In  portions  of 
the  northern  provinces  which  have  been  ravaged  by  predatory 
bands,  the  people  employ  the  respite  of  temporary  quiet  dur- 
ing the  intervals  of  invasion  in  providing  means  of  defense 
for  the  future.  In  the  province  of  Shantung,  I have  passed 
in  one  day’s  journey  of  thirty  miles  within  sight  of  nearly 
twenty  villages  surrounded  by  high  mud  walls  or  embank- 
ments. These  works  of  defense  were  the  result  of  the  labor 


THE  OPERATION  OF  NEW  INFLUENCES. 


431 


of  one  summer.  They  were  built  by  the  inhabitants  of  a num- 
ber of  surrounding  villages,  who  united  in  fortifying  in  this 
way  a large  central  town,  into  which  they  might  flee  in  time 
of  invasion  for  mutual  protection  and  defense.  Occasionally 
one  of  these  cities  of  refuge  is  seen  on  a high  hill  or  mountain 
top,  suggesting  to  the  passing  traveller  scenes  of  rapine  and 
terror  through  which  the  inhabitants  of  adjacent  villages  have 
passed,  and  the  constant  dread  occasioned  by  the  anticipation 
of  their  recurrence. 

This  state  of  things,  in  other  times  and  under  other  cir- 
cumstances, would  be  very  apt  to  lead  to  a change  of  dynasty, 
the  government  remaining  the  same.  But  there  are  now  new 
and  powerful  influences  emanating  from  foreign  lands  which 
have  never  before  been  felt — at  least  to  the  same  extent — and 
which  must  greatly  affect  the  issue.  It  is  for  the  present 
rulers  of  China  to  determine  whether  they  will  ignore  or  re- 
sist these  influences,  and  thus  make  the  downfall  of  their  gov- 
ernment more  certain  and  rapid,  or  whether  they  will  find  in 
them  new  sources  of  strength  and  recuperation.  There  is 
reason  to  hope  that  they  are  disposed  to  pursue  the  latter 
course,  and  that  by  availing  themselves  of  the  assistance 
which  may  be  drawn  from  abroad,  they  may  retrieve  their 
fortunes,  reassure  their  people,  and  perpetuate  their  dynasty, 
by  reforming  it,  and  adjusting  it  to  their  new  relations  with 
the  world,  and  the  necessities  of  the  present  age. 

The  Chinese  have  for  many  centuries  rested  in  the  conclu- 
sion that  their  form  of  government  and  civilization  was  the 
best  that  could  be  devised  ; that  the  teachings  of  their  sages 
were  complete  ; and  that  there  was  nothing  to  be  learned  from 
other  nations.  This  one  comprehensive  conclusion,  to  doubt 
which  would  almost  have  been  regarded  by  them  as  an  evi- 
dence of  stupidity  or  insanity,  has  been  an  insuperable  barrier 
in  the  way  of  development  and  progress,  and  one  which  it  has 
been  very  difficult  to  remove.  Intercourse  with  foreign  na- 
tions has  been  gradually,  but  in  a variety  of  ways,  correcting 
this  error. 


432 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


The  foreign  wars  with  China,  especially  the  last  one  with 
England  and  France,  the  influence  of  which  was  felt  in  the 
very  seat  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  has  shown  the  abject  helpless- 
ness of  that  nation  in  the  face  of  a foreign  force  vastly  inferi- 
or in  numbers.  Still  they  may,  and  do,  say  that  an  ability  to 
fight  is  no  evidence  of  a superior  race  and  civilization,  but 
rather  the  contrary.  It  is  a quality  which  results  from  brute 
force  and  courage,  and  naturally  belongs  to  uncultivated  bar- 
barians and  savages. 

They  have  been  accustomed  to  point  with  pride  to  the  arts 
of  peace  as  evidences  of  China’s  greatness  and  superiority,  to 
her  internal  improvements,  vast  resources,  public  works,  com- 
merce, and  manufactories.  Our  descriptions  of  the  modern 
arts  as  practiced  in  our  own  country,  of  our  superior  archi- 
tecture and  ship-building;  our  railroads,  steam-boats,  tele- 
graphs, newspapers,  postal  arrangements,  and  public  schools, 
do  not  produce  the  impression  upon  them  that  we  might  ex- 
pect. Of  many  of  these  arts  they  do  not  fully  appreciate  the 
advantages,  while  they  think  it  is  but  natural  foi’  us  to  speak 
well  of  our  own  country ; and  may  still  imagine  that  an  intel- 
ligent eye-witness  from  among  them,  who  would  be  able  to 
make  a just  comparison,  would  bring  a very  different  report. 
They  have  seen  some  articles  of  foreign  manufactures,  such 
as  watches  and  clocks,  sewing-machines  and  steam-engines, 
and  are  willing  to  concede  that  in  some  respects  we  have  a re- 
markable mechanical  skill,  and  give  evidence  of  a great  deal 
of  ingenuity  and  cleverness.  They  freely  admit  that  we  are 
an  intelligent  and  curious  people,  who  have  distinguished  our- 
selves by  our  proficiency  in  some  of  the  mechanic  arts ; but 
they  pride  themselves  upon  their  acquaintance  with  the  mys- 
terious sciences  of  astrology,  divination,  geomancy,  ontology, 
necromancy,  etc.,  treated  of  in  their  extensive  literature — 
branches  of  learning  esteemed  by  them  as  hardly  second  to 
any  others  in  importance. 

This  inner  wall  of  the  defenses  of  national  pride  and  prej- 
udice is  beginning  to  be  undermined.  A slight  acquaintance 


THE  EFFECT-  OF  TRUE  SCIENCE. 


433 


with  modern  science  is  sufficient  to  shake  the  confidence  of 
the  people  in  those  false  and  imaginary  sciences  which  have 
had  such  an  influence  on  their  minds  for  ages.  For  instance, 
the  production  and  effects  of  electricity  are  referred  by  them 
to  a particular  deity  called  the  God  of  Thunder.  Now,  by 
the  use  of  a small  electrical  machine,  we  can  show  them  how 
this  fluid  is  generated,  and  thunder  and  lightning  produced ; 
and  can  explain  how  electricity  may  be  used  for  the  purpose 
of  the  rapid  communication  of  information.  They  believe 
that  there  are  five  simple  elements  in  nature — metal , wood, 
water , fire,  and  earth — and  they  have  no  idea  of  any  analysis 
by  which  any  of  these  substances  can  be  resolved  into  simpler 
ones.  These  five  elements  lie  at  the  basis  of  different  systems 
of  astrology,  geomancy,  divination,  and  medicine ; and  the 
prominence  and  mysterious  influences  of  these  great  powers 
in  nature  are  often  referred  to  as  well-established  and  impor- 
tant conclusions  of  science. 

To  illustrate  this  subj  ect,  I will  refer  to  the  application  of 
these  fundamental  ideas  to  the  practice  of  medicine.  It  is 
supposed  that  these  “ five  elements.”  have  some  mysterious 
connection  with  and  relation  to  the  different  parts  of  the 
body,  such  as  the  heart,  the  lungs,  the  stomach,  the  liver,  etc. 
If  a disease  is  found  to  be  in  the  part  or  organ  of  the  body 
connected  with  the  element  metal,  then  the  medicine  must  be 
drawn  from  the  mineral  kingdom  ; if  in  a part  connected  with 
the  element  wood,  it  must  be  drawn  from  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, and  so  on  indefinitely.  This  will  give  a general  idea  of 
the  wide  application  of  these  “ first  principles  ” of  the  Chinese, 
and  of  the  revolution  of  ideas  which  must  result  from  a slight 
knowledge  of  chemistry,  showing,  as  it  does,  that  the  basis  on 
which  these  various  systems  rests  is  unscientific  and  foolisli 
in  the  extreme.  These  superstitious  notions  and  theories  of 
imaginary  sciences  are  connected,  as  may  be  seen  from  the 
examples  given  above,  with  the  Chinese  systems  of  idolatry 
and  philosophy,  and  with  their  social  life  ; and  the  obliteration 
of  one  prominent  doctrine  of  their  system  "tends  to  produce 

T 


434 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


distrust  of  the  whole,  and  to  disenthrall  the  mind,  and  send  it 
forth  on  a new  search  for  truth. 

But  the  principal  ground  of  the  Chinese  belief  in  their 
own  superiority  is  to  be  found  in  the  ethical  and  political 
teachings  of  Confucianism.  This  is  the  stronghold  of  their 
confidence  and  pride.  Yet  even  here  their  minds  are  becom- 
ing seriously  and  painfully  exercised.  They  listen  with  sur- 
prise to  the  propagators  of  a new  religion,  who,  while  speaking 
with  great  respect  of  Confucius  and  the  system  to  which  he 
has  given  his  name,  and  confirming  and  reasserting  many  of 
the  truths  which  he  taught,  dare  to  point  out  the  defects  of 
his  system,  and  to  present  another  with  a superior  character 
and  claims.  They  find  that,  instead  of  the  baseless  assump- 
tions and  vague  surmises  which  are  connected  with  the  relig- 
ions with  which  they  have  heretofore  been  acquainted,  this 
one  from  W estern  lands  asks  for  no  blind  faith,  appeals  to  no 
popular  prejudice  or  superstition,  but  presents  its  irrefragable 
evidences  and  proofs.  It  comes  not  to  corrupt  and  delude 
the  people,  but  to  instruct  and  elevate  them,  and  to  lay  broad- 
er and  deeper  the  foundations  of  social  order  and  permanent 
prosperity  and  peace.  It  explores  regions  of  truth  into  which 
their  sages  have  not  ventured ; it  brings  to  view  a purer  mo- 
rality, a more  disinterested  love,  a more  spiritual  and  intense 
devotion,  and  a new  and  higher  life.  The  careful  and  candid 
Chinese  student  opens  his  eyes  to  a new  world  of  intellectual 
and  spiritual  light,  and  is  reluctantly  forced  to  acknowledge 
that  a greater  than  Confucius  is  here. 

The  new  ideas  and  influences  referred  to  above  have  not 
yet  become  general  and  operative  among  the  masses,  but  they 
have  taken  strong  hold  of  individuals,  and  are  extending  in 
ever  widening  spheres,  and  with  ever  increasing  power. 

In  this  connection,  it  is  proper  to  speak  of  the  influence  we 
are  exerting  upon  China  from  our  Western  coast  through  the 
thousands  of  Chinese  emigrants  Avho  are  visiting  our  shores, 
and  returning  in  great  numbers  to  their  homes.  The  influence 
of  these  emigrants  is  less  than  might  at  first  be  supposed. 


INFLUENCE  OF  THE  CHINESE  IN  CALIFORNIA.  435 


Though  their  numbers  seem  large  to  us,  they  are,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  population  from  which  they  come,  almost  as  noth- 
ing. They  are  principally  from  the  province  of  Kwang-tung ; 
and  a single  city  of  that  province,  Canton,  might  have  furnish- 
ed every  emigrant  which  has  ever  come  to  our  country  from 
China  without  any  appreciable  loss  or  diminution  of  its  in- 
habitants. Moreover,  the  great  body  of  these  emigrants  are 
persons  of  very  little  position  and  influence  in  China.  They 
go  back  to  their  homes  in  the  eity  or  country,  and  entertain 
their  friends  and  neighbors  with  the  story  of  their  adventures 
for  a short  period ; and  then  it  loses  its  novelty,  and  they  set- 
tle down  to  the  quiet  routine  of  their  every-day  life.  The 
fixedness  of  custom  and  power  of  inertia  in  China  are  too 
great  to  be  readily  affected  by  such  slight  influences.  More- 
over, there  is  reason  to  fear  that  the  Chinese  do  not  carry 
back  as  favorable  an  impression  of  our  country  as  we  could 
wish.  Many  of  them  are  treated  with  a great  deal  of  severi- 
ty and  injustice,  and  have  met  with  representatives  of  our  race 
not  at  all  calculated  to  make  them  any  better,  or  to  prepare 
them  to  exert  a good  influence  on  their  own  people  on  their 
return.  I would  not  by  any  means  be  understood  as  saying 
that  no  good  has  resulted  from  this  California  immigration,  but 
only  that  there  is  a tendency  to  overrate  its  importance.  A 
decided  impression  has  been  produced,  and  in  some  respects 
a good  one.  While  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  very  few  of  the 
Chinese  emigrants  become  Christians  in  this  country,  it  is  at 
the  same  time  true  that  few  go  back  with  the  same  supersti- 
tious and  idolatrous  notions  which  they  brought  with  them. 
It  is  often  remarked  by  ship-captains  that  they  are  constant- 
ly engaged  in  idolatrous  worship  while  going  to  California, 
but  are  comparatively  very  careless  about  such  matters  on 
their  return. 

Is  it  not  strange  that,  with  sixty  thousand  or  more  Chinese 
idolaters  living  among  us,  and  entirely  accessible  to  our  in- 
fluence, so  little  has  been  attempted  by  American  Christians 
to  enlighten  and  evangelize  them  ? It  is  true  that  there  are 


436 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


some  disadvantages  in  laboring  for  them  here,  as  compared 
with  laboring  for  them  in  China,  growing  out  of  their  wan- 
dering and  unsettled  life,  separation  from  home  influences  and 
associations,  their  demoralized  condition,  and  their  absorbing 
interest  in  making  money,  but  this  by  no  means  excuses  our 
neglect.  There  are  peculiar  advantages  also  in  having  them 
so  near  us,  and  so  much  under  our  influence.  The  Presbyte- 
rian Board  is,  I believe,  the  only  one  which  has  established 
a permanent  mission  among  these  emigrants,  and  the  experi- 
ence of  its  earnest  and  devoted  missionaries  who  have  been 
laboring  there  for  more  than  ten  years  is  full  of  encourage- 
ment. 

The  future  influence  of  the  Chinese  upon  our  Western 
coast  is  probably  destined  to  be  very  great.  Their  quiet  hab- 
its and  industry  are  gradually  winning  the  esteem  and  confi- 
dence of  our  people ; and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  they  will  re- 
ceive such  treatment  from  our  government  and  citizens  as  to 
attract  to  our  shores  a large  number  of  persons  from  the 
more  intelligent  and  influential  classes.  The  increasing  de- 
mand for  labor  in  our  country,  the  overburdened  population 
of  China,  and  the  present  unsettled  state  of  the  empire,  are 
facts  which  conspire  to  stimulate  and  increase  immigration  to 
our  shores.  Should  the  tendency  become  general,  a tide  of 
population  would  pour  over  our  Pacific  States  and  down  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  unprecedented  in  tlie# 
history  of  nations ; and  the  effect  of  such  an  immigration,  or 
we  might  almost  say  inundation,  no  human  foresight  can  now 
determine. 

There  are  other  causes  tending  to  produce  a change  in  the 
views,  relations,  and  policy  of  the  Chinese  of  a still  more 
pressing  and  imperative  character.  Their  liability  to  misun- 
derstandings, and  consequent  collisions  and  wars  with  W est- 
ern  nations,  resulting  from  their  ignorance  of  our  usages,  and 
the  determination  of  European  powers  to  apply  the  same  laws 
and  regulations  which  prevail  among  other  nations  to  China 
only  with  more  rigor,  have  produced  a disposition  on  her  part 


VARIOUS  REVOLUTIONARY  INFLUENCES. 


437 


to  become  acquainted  with,  and  to  adopt  our  conventional 
rules*of  international  law.  A work  on  this  subject  has  been 
translated  by  Dr.  Martin,  of  Pekin,  and  printed  at  the  expense 
of  the  Chinese  government,  and  has  no  doubt  been  perused 
with  much  care  and  profit  by  persons  high  in  position  and  in- 
fluence in  the  empire. 

A special  clause  of  the  last  English  treaty  provided  that  its 
authoritative  form  should  be  the  English  rather  than  the  Chi- 
nese text ; so  it  is  thus  made  desirable  and  almost  necessary 
for  at  least  some  of  the  Chinese  to  become  familiar  with  our 
language.  Consequently,  classes  were  .formed  in  Pekin  and 
other  parts  of  China  soon  after  the  ratification  of  the  late 
treaties,  composed  of  intelligent  and  promising  Chinese  and 
Tartar  youths,  with  a good  ground- work  of  their  own  literary 
training,  who  have  undertaken  the  study  of  the  English  lan- 
guage and  literature  with  a view  to  becoming  government  in- 
terpreters. 

The  present  exigencies  of  the  empire  have  also  directed  the 
attention  of  its  rulers  to  the  desirableness,  if  not  the  absolute 
necessity,  if  they  would  not  let  the  sceptre  of  government  slip 
from  their  grasp,  of  possessing  themselves  of  a knowledge  of 
the  military  science  of  the  West.  They  can  not  fail  to  see 
that  an  aspirant  for  the  throne  who  should  take  the  initiative 
in  obtaining  foreign  gun-boats  and  acquiring  the  ability  to 
use  them,  and  raising  an  army  disciplined  under  foreign  drill 
and  furnished  with  foreign  weapons,  would  be  irresistible  on 
sea  or  land. 

The  various  reasons  given  above  for  adopting  a more  lib- 
eral and  enlightened  policy  would  be  sufficiently  evident  to 
the  Chinese,  without  any  special  explanation,  information,  or 
advice  from  others.  But  they  are  made  still  more  so  by  the 
presence  of  the  ministers  of  Western  powers  and  intelli- 
gent foreigners  in  the  employ  of  the  government  who  reside 
in  Pekin,  and  have  constant  and  familiar  intercourse  with  the 
chief  men  of  influence  in  the  empire.  Through  this  inter- 
course, much  reliable  information  is  communicated  respecting 


438 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


other  countries,  tending  to  produce  enlightened  views,  a mu- 
tual understanding,  and  a mutual  confidence.  The  Chinese 
are  learning  to  understand  their  own  position  and  relations  to 
other  powers,  and  their  own  interests ; also  to  discriminate 
between  the  characters,  peculiarities,  and  policies  of  different 
nations. 

Under  these  circumstances  the  government  has  lately  inau- 
gurated two  movements,  as  desirable  as  they  were  unexpect- 
ed, which  show  how  rapidly  its  policy  is  being  changed, 
and  furnish  ground  for  expecting  still  more  rapid  changes  in 
the  future. 

A few  months  since  we  were  startled  by  the  intelligence 
that  a university  was  about  to  be  established  at  Pekin,  having 
for  its  avowed  object  the  teaching  of  foreign  sciences,  under 
the  superintendence  of  professors  from  America  and  Europe. 
As  was  to  be  expected,  this  new  movement  met  with  a deter- 
mined opposition  from  the  old  conservative  school  of  China. 
It  Avas  urged  by  one  of  this  class,  who  is  a person  of  great 
prominence  and  influence,  that  if  it  Avere  necessary  to  have 
such  an  institution,  they  could  of  course  furnish  better  teach- 
ers from  their  OAvn  literati  than  could  be  obtained  from 
abroad.  He  was  effectually  ansAvered  by  being  called  upon 
to  supply  the  men,  which,  failing  to  do,  the  university  was 
founded  without  further  opposition. 

The  fact  of  the  establishment  of  such  a school  in  Pekin 
Avill  in  time  have  a great  moral  effect  throughout  the  empire. 
Scholars  in  the  provinces  will  have  their  curiosity  excited  to 
know  Avhat  this  neAV  learning  from  the  West  is,  and  a pow- 
erful stimulus  will  be  given  to  free  thought  and  inquiry.  The 
young  men  who  will  here  receive  a thorough  training  Avill 
be  influential  officers  at  home,  and  foreign  embassadors  to 
other  powers,  and  the  authors  of  Chinese  Avorks  on  the  mod- 
ern sciences. 

The  other  significant  fact  just  alluded  to  is  the  appoint- 
ment by  the  Chinese  government  of  the  Embassy  Avliich  has 
recently  left  our  shores.  This  Embassy  may  justly  be  regard- 


THE  EMBASSY  TO  WESTEKN  POWEKS. 


439 


ed  as  introducing  a new  era  in  the  history  of  China.  Starting 
out  to  visit  the  various  “ Western  Powers,”  it  takes  its  jour- 
ney toward  the  East,  and  reaches  first  the  United  States,  its 
nearest  neighbor.  The  extremes  of  the  East  and  the  West 
have  met.  The  oldest  nation  of  the  earth  has  come  to  make 
overtures  to  the  youngest.  She  came  on  an  errand  of  amity 
and  good-will,  to  establish  more  intimate  relations,  to  seek 
mutual  advantages.  She  came,  laying  aside  her  long-cherished 
pride  and  assumption  of  superiority,  with  true  humility  (and 
not  without  an  acknowledged  dignity  and  self-respect)  as  a 
learner ; to  find  that  she  is  living  in  a new  world,  and  to  in- 
graft the  ideas  and  the  civilization  of  the  nineteenth  century 
upon  an  old  but  still  vigorous  stock,  which  has  witnessed  the 
vicissitudes  and  withstood  the  storms  of  more  than  twenty 
centuries. 

The  origin  of  this  Embassy  is  peculiar  and  full  of  interest. 
Our  minister,  Hon.  Anson  Burlingame,  during  his  residence 
of  about  six  years  in  Pekin  as  United  States  Minister,  had  ac- 
quired to  an  unusual  degree  the  confidence  and  esteem  of  the 
present  rulers  of  China.  His  just  appreciation  of  the  charac- 
ter of  their  people  and  government ; his  sympathy  with  them 
in  their  trials ; and,  above  all,  his  evident  desire  to  accord  to 
them  fully  their  national  rights,  awakened  in  them  a hearty 
and  affectionate  response.  When  about  to  return  home,  they 
expressed  their  deep  regret  and  sense  of  loss  at  his  leaving 
them.  They  had  already  begun  to  feel  the  necessity  of  enter- 
ing into  closer  relations  with  other  powers,  and  the  desirable- 
ness of  doing  it  speedily ; but  from  their  long  isolation,  and 
ignorance  of  Western  languages  and  customs,  foreign  travel 
and  foreign  courts,  they  could  at  present  hardly  find  a suitable 
person  from  among  their  OAvn  people  to  take  the  lead  in  such 
a movement.  It  occurred  to  their  minds  that  Mr.  Burlingame 
might  be  induced  to  become  their  official  representative,  and 
undertake  this  mission  for  them.  When  they  were  told  that 
there  was  nothing  impracticable  in  such  a plan,  they  made  to 
him,  as  soon  as  it  could  be  done  in  a regular  and  formal  man- 


440 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


ner,  the  proffer  of  this  high  position  and  trust,  which  proffer 
was  accepted. 

Placing  him  at  the  head  of  the  Embassy,  they  associated 
with  him  two  Chinese  officials  of  high  rank,  Chi-kang  and 
Sun-Jcia-Jcu  / the  former  a Tartar,  and  the  latter  a Chinese. 
The  Embassy  has  connected  with  it  two  foreign  interpreters 
or  secretaries,  one  English  and  one  French ; also  six  Chinese 
student  interpreters — young  men  between  twenty  and  twenty- 
five  years  of  age,  two  of  whom  speak  French,  two  English, 
and  two  Russian.  Besides,  there  are  twenty  others,  who  are 
subordinate  officers,  Chinese  secretaries,  valets,  physicians, 
and  servants. 

The  cordiality  and  enthusiasm  with  which  these  represent- 
atives of  China  -were  received  were  not  more  remarkable  than 
the  happy  impression  which  they  have  left  behind  them.  It 
was  evident  to  all  that  they  were  men  of  a high  degree  of  in- 
telligence and  culture.  Whether  in  the  public  assembly,  or 
the  fashionable  soiree , or  in  the  domestic  circle,  they  weie 
everywhere  at  ease.  Their  gracefulness  of  manner,  their  un- 
pretending and  cordial  politeness,  their  careful  and  discrimi- 
nating observations  and  inquiries,  and  their  ready  wit  and 
pleasantry  were  subjects  of  general  remark.  It  was  also  ob- 
served that  the  English  of  the  student  interpreters  was  re- 
markably free  from  a foreign  accent. 

The  treaty  concluded  in  Washington  between  our  govern- 
ment and  the  Chinese  is  rather  one-sided,  nearly  all  its  pro- 
visions being  in  favor  of  the  Chinese.  For  this  reason,  it  is  all 
the  more  honorable  to  Mr.  Burlingame  and  to  our  govern- 
ment. Instead  of  being  dictated  by  selfishness  and  secured 
by  intimidation,  it  presents  the  rare  excellence  and  beauty  of 
a great  and  powerful  nation  giving  to  a weaker  one  her  rights 
from  motives  of  impartial  justice  and  generosity.  The  sub- 
stantial evidence  thus  afforded  of  genuine  friendship  will  be 
of  greater  advantage  to  both  parties  than  the  provisions  of 
the  treaty  themselves.  The  Chinese  seem  to  have  left  us  more 
than  satisfied,  and  will  go  back  to  their  homes  to  impart  to 


OBJECTS  AND  RESULTS  OF  THE  LATE  EMBASSY.  441 

their  countrymen  different  views  from  those  which  have  here- 
tofore been  entertained,  and  to  give  a broader  meaning  to  the 
familiar  saying  of  their  great  teacher,  “All  within  the  four 
seas  are  brethren.”* 


The  members  of  this  Embassy  represent  the  party  of  prog- 
ress, which  is  now,  and  has  been  for  years  in  the  ascendant. 
At  its  head  is  Prince  Kung,  who,  during  the  minority  of  the 

* Further  information  respecting  the  origin,  objects,  and  results  of  this 
Embassy  may  be  obtained  from  a speech  of  Mr.  Burlingame  in  New  York, 
and  from  the  treaty  agreed  upon  in  Washington,  both  of  which  may  be 
found  in  the  Appendix. 

T 2 


442 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


Emperor  Tung-che,  now  about  thirteen  years  old,  virtually 
wields  the  power  of  Regent.  This  party  fully  appreciates  the 
true  position  and  interests  of  China  in  the  present  crisis,  and 
is  introducing  foreign  ideas  and  new  measures  as  fast  as  the 
state  of  public  opinion  and  feeling  among  their  countrymen 
will  allow.  The  changes  which  they  are  effecting  may  seem 
slow  to  us,  but  they  are  rapid  and  radical  beyond  all  former 
precedent.  Besides  admitting  the  ministers  of  foreign  powers 
to  their  capital,  establishing  a foreign  university  of  learning, 
and  sending  forth  to  Western  nations  its  first  Embassy,  it  is 
building  gun-boats,  introducing  foreign  drill  and  discipline 
and  warlike  weapons  into  the  army,  and  employing  a large 
number  of  foreigners  to  aid  them  in  effecting  the  changes 
which  they  desire.  The  Chinese  members  of  the  Embassy 
were  constantly  making  notes  of  their  journey,  winch  will 
probably  be  published  on  their  return  with  the  official  sanc- 
tion of  the  government,  and  will  give  a new  impulse  to  the 
cause  of  progress.  We  will  no  doubt  hear  of  ministers  and 
consuls  being  sent  from  China  to  foreign  nations,  and  of  the 
construction  on  her  soil  of  telegraphs  and  railroads  as  soon  as 
the  carrying  out  of  these  measures  is  practicable. 

In  the  mean  time  enlarged  advantages  for  prosecuting  the 
work  of  missions  are  being  granted  faster  than  we  are  appro- 
priating them.  Missionaries,  in  accordance  with  the  treaties 
of  1858,  not  only  reside  in  the  open  ports,  and  travel  and  teach 
wherever  they  please  throughout  the  empire,  but  are  allowed 
to  rent  houses  for  permanent  residence  in  places  not  named  in 
the  treaty.  Protestant  missionaries  are  fast  acquiring  a char- 
acter of  their  own,  in  distinction  from  the  representatives  of 
the  Church  of  Rome,  and  are  constantly  gaining  to  a greater 
degree  the  confidence  of  the  people  and  their  rulers. 

There  are  evidences  of  a change  of  feeling  with  regard  to 
the  idolatrous  rites  practiced  by  the  people.  The  following 
information,  derived  from  missionary  sources,  is  being  exten- 
sively copied  and  circulated  in  our  religious  periodicals : “ The 
Emperor  of  China  has  issued  an  edict  forbidding  the  rebuild- 


CHINA  COMMITTED  TO  PROGRESS.  443 

ing  of  destroyed,  and  the  repair  of  decayed  temples,  except  the 
temples  of  Confucius.  The  principal  judge  of  Suchow  has 
prohibited  the  people  of  that  large  city  from  worshiping  in 
the  temples,  or  burning  incense,  candles,  or  silver  paper  before 
the  idols.”  We  are  hardly  warranted  in  inferring  from  these 
facts  that  there  is  a decided  disposition  among  Chinese  officers 
to  favor  Christianity.  They  would  probably  explain  the  ori- 
gin of  these  edicts  by  attributing  them  to  a desire  to  husband 
the  resources  of  the  empire,  and  to  avoid  all  unnecessary  waste 
of  funds  during  the  exigencies  of  the  present  time.  The  fact 
remains,  however,  that  the  building  of  temples  and  the  wor- 
ship of  idols  is  regarded  at  least  as  a matter  of  secondary  and 
trivial  importance,  and  that,  for  some  cause  or  other,  heathen 
temples  are  likely  to  fall  into  decay.  These  indications  of 
change  are  certainly  significant,  and  point  unmistakably  to  the 
period  when  “ idols  shall  be  utterly  abolished.” 

Enough  has  been  said  to  confirm  and  illustrate  the  general 
statement  that  the  present  is  for  China  a period  of  transition, 
and  marks  a new  and  most  important  epoch  in  her  history. 
She  has  loosed  from  her  ancient  moorings,  and,  under  influences 
hitherto  unfelt,  is  moving  slowly  but  surely  in  a course  in 
which  the  star  of  science  leads,  and  the  pressure  of  necessity 
urges  her.  What  storms  and  trials  she  may  meet  none  can 
tell.  In  her  new  and  untried  career,  shall  we  not  give  her  our 
cordial  sympathy  and  co-operation,  hoping  that  her  future  may 
be  full  of  blessings  to  her  vast  population  and  to  the  world  ? 


444 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


CHAPTER  XXYIII. 

CONCLUSION. 

The  Presence  and  Agency  of  Christ  among  the  Nations. — He  rules  the 
World  in  the  Interest  of  the  Church. — Different  Influences  conspire  to 
prepare  the  Way  for  the  Establishment  of  His  spiritual  Kingdom. — The 
Responsibility  of  the  Church  in  the  present  Juncture. — Evidences  of  low 
and  unscriptural  Views  with  Regard  to  Missions. — The  true  Standard 
of  Christian  Duty. 

The  present  condition  of  China  will  be  viewed  in  different 
lights  by  different  individuals.  The  merchant  will  see  in  it  an 
opportunity  for  supplying  the  new-felt  wants  of  the  people, 
and  introducing,  as  there  is  a demand  for  them,  the  manufac- 
tures, machinery,  and  mechanical  implements  of  the  West. 
Statesmen  of  different  nations  will  be  on  the  alert  to  secure 
political  and  commercial  advantages  for  their  respective  coun- 
tries. Scholars  will  look  for  freer  access  to  the  public  libra- 
ries and  general  literature  of  China,  and  hope  for  additional 
light  upon  history,  chronology,  ethnology,  and  other  depart- 
ments of  science.  These  will  generally  be  considered  as  the 
principal  and  most  important  ends  to  be  secured  in  our  inter- 
course with  that  great  nation.  Not  a few  who  seem  to 
think  that  the  great  end  for  which  Eastern  nations  exist  is  to 
minister  to  and  enfich  the  West,  will  regard  it  as  but  reason- 
able and  right  that  those  countries  which  have  labored,  ex- 
pended, and  suffered  most  for  the  purpose  of  opening  China, 
should  be  compensated  by  commercial  and  political  advan- 
tages, the  securing  of  these  objects  having  been  from  the  first 
the  principal  and  avowed  motive  which  led  to  these  expendi- 
tures. 

But  the  intelligent  Christian  who  reads  aright  the  book 


CHRIST  RULES  AMONG  THE  NATIONS. 


445 


of  Revelation,  of  History,  and  of  Providence,  will  take  anoth- 
er. and  widely  different  view  of  this  whole  matter.  Behind 
these  second  causes  he  will  recognize  the  mighty  workings 
of  Him  who  has  all  power  in  heaven  and  in  earth,  and  who 
rules  all  nations  in  the  interests  of  His  Church.  Those  solemn 
and  sublime,  though  mysterious,  words  addressed  by  Jesus  of 
Nazareth  to  the  Roman  governor,  “I  am  a king,”  present  a 
practical  reality  which  some  Christians  as  well  as  others  are 
too  apt  to  lose  sight  of.  Yes,  high  above  all  earthly  poten- 
tates, Jesus  sits  the  Universal  King.  As  in  former  times  He 
used  the  sword  of  the  Assyrian  as  the  rod  of  his  anger,  and 
for  “ Jacob  his  servant’s  sake  ” called  even  Cyrus  by  His  name, 
and  said  of  him  “ He  is  my  shepherd,  and  shall  perform  all 
my  pleasure,”  so  at  present  He  makes  use  of  England  and 
France,  and  other  nations  which  He  has  raised  up  for  Ilis  own 
purposes,  as  unconscious  instruments  to  do  His  will.  They 
pursue  their  own  ends,  which  are  often  unworthy  and  sinful, 
but  He  overrules  their  acts,  bringing  good  out  of  evil.  His 
purposes,  at  first  concealed  from  mortal  view,  are  gradually 
unfolding ; and  His  comprehensive  plan  of  providence  and 
grace  will  surely  be  accomplished  when  the  petty  schemes  of 
men  and  nations,  through  which  they  have  been  developed, 
are  forgotten. 

Now  among  the  clearest  facts  of  God’s  revelations  of  the 
future  are  these : The  kingdom  of  which  Christ  is  the  head 
shall  be  universal ; it  shall  rise  upon  the  ruins  of  idolatry  and 
superstition,  and,  in  its  final  triumph,  establish  here  in  our 
world  a millennium  of  peace  and  glory.  “ All  kings  shall  fall 
down  before  him,  all  nations  shall  serve  him.” 

“ It  is  not  for  us  to  know  the  times  and  the  season  which 
the  Father  has  put  in  His  own  power,”  but  who  can  fail  to  see 
that  the  leading  events  of  the  present  are  pointing  to  the  con- 
summation of  the  divine  purposes  ? The  tendency  of  our  race 
after  the  confusion  of  tongues  and  the  dispersion  was  to  the 
constant  multiplication  and  separation  of  numerous  nations 
speaking  different  languages.  This  tendency  has  been  re- 


446 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


versed,  and  the  opposite  one  is  now  most  marked.  Tribes  and 
races  hitherto  segregated  and  comparatively  unknown  are  now 
joining  the  brotherhood  of  nations.  India,  China,  and  Japan, 
with  their  teeming  millions,  are  waking  from  the  sleep  of  ages, 
to  respond  to  the  impulse  of  new  ideas*  and  to  join  in  the 
march  of  modern  civilization.  Men  are  running  to  and  fro, 
and  knowledge  is  being  increased.  While  the  sons  of  Japheth 
are  dwelling  in  the  tents  of  Shem,  and  disseminating  W estern 
ideas,  Eastern  nations  are  coming  to  us,  not  only  by  embassies 
and  immigrants,  but  through  travellers  whose  express  object 
is  to  gain  information.  Young  men  of  the  ruling  classes  in 
Japan,  full  of  intelligence,  zeal,  and  energy,  are  laying  aside 
official  rank  and  dignity,  and  coming  to  our  shores,  entering 
our  primary  schools  and  colleges,  and  are  making  remarkable 
progress  in  knowledge  ; burning  with  a desire  to  go  back  and 
inform  and  elevate  their  countrymen.  Some  of  them,  under  a 
strong  conviction  of  duty,  and  Avith  the  true  spirit  of  martyrs, 
are  taking  upon  themselves  the  voavs  of  Christ,  though  they 
knoAv  that  by  the  laws  of  their  country  such  a course  is 
threatened  Avith  death. 

It  is  also  a most  significant  fact  that  the  influence  of  Chris- 
tian nations  is  everyAArhere  predominant  throughout  the  world. 
The  common  language  of  the  two  great  Protestant  powers, 
England  and  the  United  States,  the  language  in  which  are 
garnered  the  richest  treasures  of  sanctified  learning  and 
Christian  thought,  is  taking  the  precedence  of  all  others,  and 
is  now  spoken  to  a greater  or  less  extent  in  almost  every  na- 
tion under  the  whole  heaven.  Old  systems  of  error  and  su- 
perstition are  crumbling  and  falling,  and  idolatry,  whose  reign 
has  been  so  protracted  and  so  nearly  universal,  seems  to  be 
passing  from  the  earth.  With  the  increased  facilities  for  com- 
municating ideas  and  for  locomotion,  nations  are  practically 
brought  nearer  together.  In  a feAV  years  almost  all  of  them 
Avill,  through  the  magnetic  wire,  be  within  speaking  distance 
of  each  other,  and  the  traveller  will  be  able  to  pass  round  the 
Avorld  in  less  than  three  months. 


THE  RESPONSIBILITY  OF  THE  CHURCH. 


447 


Christ  is  indeed  doing  a great  work  in  the  earth.  In  his 
hands,  all  agencies,  national  and  individual,  commercial,  dip- 
lomatic, and  scientific,  tend  to  the  same  result.  We  should 
not  depreciate  these  powerful  auxiliaries  to  the  establishment 
of  His  kingdom,  much  less  regard  them  as  antagonistic.  They 
are  important  in  their  several  spheres,  and  to  accomplish  their 
appropriate  ends.  They  may  do  much  in  undermining  old  sys- 
tems of  idolatry,  though  they  can  not  substitute  any  thing  bet- 
ter in  their  place ; and,  without  the  Gospel,  they  may  prove  a 
curse  rather  than  a blessing. 

Under  these  circumstances,  how  sublime  the  mission,  and 
how  great  the  responsibility  of  the  Church  in  the  present  age  ! 
Of  this  responsibility  I desire,  in  conclusion,  to  speak  plainly 
and  earnestly.  I know  that,  while  missionaries  are  generally 
listened  to  with  interest  and  attention  as  long  as  they  can  tell 
an  interesting  story,  or  while  they  communicate  important 
information  respecting  the  countries  from  which  they  come, 
they  are  often  complained  of  when  they  take  the  liberty  of 
“preaching  on  missions.”  I acknowledge  that  this  does  not 
seem  the  most  appropriate  work  for  them  to  do,  but  there 
would  be  less  necessity  for  it,  and  disposition  to  attempt  it, 
if  it  were  generally  attended  to  by  pastors  at  home. 

Most  Christians  agree  that  the  work  of  missions  is  impor- 
tant ; but  this  acknowledgment  is  with  many  rather  the  ex- 
pression of  an  inoperative  sentiment  than  a practical  truth. 
They  admire  the  missionary  zeal  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  but  would 
perhaps  regard  a person  manifesting  the  same  zeal  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  though  with  equal  or  greater  reason,  a visionary  en- 
thusiast. Their  sympathies  may  perchance  be  excited  when 
an  eloquent  preacher  pictures  to  their  imagination  the  condition 
of  Athens  eighteen  hundred  years  ago  as  a city  filled  with  idols ; 
but  the  present  spectacle  of  whole  nations  filled  with  idols,  and 
brought  into  the  closest  relations  with  us,  affects  them  but 
little.  The  same  religious  views,  feelings,  labors,  and  sacrifi- 
ces which  were  very  appropriate  in  apostolic  times,  seem  to 
them  rather  out  of  place  in  these  modern  days. 


448 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


IIow  persons  who  believe  the  Bible  can  entertain  such 
views,  is  to  me  a mystery ! It  may  be  said  of  them,  with 
reference  to  the  New  Testament,  as  it  was  of  the  Jews,  with 
reference  to  the  Old ; even  to  this  day,  when  the  words  of 
Christ  and  His  Apostles  are  read,  “the  veil  is  upon  their 
heart.”  The  duty  of  missions  is  the  burden  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. From  Matthew  to  Revelation,  it  is  written  on  almost 
every  page  ; and  the  glorious  theme  is  frequently  referred  to 
in  some  of  the  most  glowing  and  sublime  passages  of  ancient 
prophecy.  How  strange  that  the  ministers  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, who  are  appointed  to  speak  as  the  oracles  of  God, 
should,  after  preaching  to  a Christian  congregation  for  years, 
leave  them  in  doubt  as  to  the  authoritative  teachings  of  the 
Bible  on  this  fundamental  and  vital  matter  ! Surely  there  is 
need  of  preaching  on  missions,  not  as  a subject  to  be  treated 
of  on  special  and  extraordinary  occasions,  and  distinct  from 
the  usual  ministrations  of  the  sanctuary,  but  as  a necessary 
part  of  Gospel  preaching;  till  every  professed  disciple  feels 
that  this  work  is  as  much  a part  of  Christian  duty  as  any 
other  which  is  commanded  in  the  Scriptures ; and  that  to  be 
out  of  sympathy  with  it  is  so  far  to  be  out  of  sympathy  with 
Christ, 

It  is  a lamentable  fact,  that  a large  proportion  of  the  theo- 
logical students  who  are  willing  to  engage  in  missionary 
work  meet  with  opposition  from  Christian  parents  or  friends. 
In  certain  cases,  there  are  good  and  sufficient  reasons  which 
evidently  make  it  the  duty  of  those  who  earnestly  desire  to 
go  abroad  to  remain  at  home.  In  other  instances,  the  ob- 
stacle is  simply  the  unwillingness  of  parents  to  allow  them  to 
go.  A theological  student  said  to  me  not  long  since,  “ I am 
very  willing  to  be  a missionary,  but  our  family  has  never  yet 
been  broken  up  ; our  parents  like  to  have  their  children  about 
them,  and  are  averse  to  my  leaving.”  It  is  not  a matter  of 
regret  that  such  persons  do  not  go,  but  rather  that  such  a 
low  standard  of  duty  and  Christian  consecration  should  pre- 
vail in  the  Church  of  Christ,  and  especially  in  the  minis- 


GIVING,  A CHRISTIAN  DUTY. 


449 


try.  These  are  the  same  difficulties  which  are  often  pre- 
sented to  us  by  inquirers  in  heathen  lands : “ I would  like  to 
be  a Christian,  but  my  parents  are  opposed  to  it.  The  peace 
and  quiet  of  our  family  has  never  yet  been  disturbed,  and  I 
do  not  like  to  go  contrary  to  their  wishes.”  The  only  prop- 
er answer  to  such  objections  and  excuses,  whether  among  the 
heathen  or  in  the  Church,  is  the  words  of  Christ,  “ He  that 
lovetli  father  or  mother  more  tfian  me  is  not  worthy  of  me.” 

The  contributions  of  Christians  to  the  cause  of  missions 
also  show  how  inadequate  their  efforts  are  to  meet  the  de- 
mands of  the  case,  and  are  the  best  outward  index  of  the  in- 
terest which  is  really  felt.  The  Protestant  Church,  with  her 
scriptural  faith,  her  professions  of  love  to  Christ,  and  the  nu- 
merous claims  of  His  cause  upon  her  at  home  and  abroad,  gives 
a much  smaller  proportion  of  her  means  to  the  cause  of  Christ 
than  Roman  Catholics  and  pagans  do  for  the  support  of  their 
forms  of  religion  and  idolatry.  The  average  of  the  contribu- 
tions of  the  members  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  including 
those  of  the  few  who  give  largely  and  generously,  is  about 
seventy  cents  each  annually ; not  more  than  one-twentieth 
of  the  amount  expended  by  many  a poor  laboring  man 
for  the  single  and  unnecessary  item  of  tobacco  ! The  Church 
needs  another  reformation  to  establish  the  doctrine  of  the 
necessity  of  “ good  works,”  as  the  Reformation  in  the  time 
of  Luther  did  that  of  justification  by  faith.  Faith  with- 
out works  is  dead,  and  this  dead  faith  and  covetousness, 
which  is  idolatry,  threaten  to  destroy  the  life  and  energy 
of  the  Church.  On  this  important  Christian  duty,  so  prom- 
inently presented,  and  so  often  urged  upon  Christians  in 
the  Bible,  there  is  also  great  need  of  plain  and  pungent  ex- 
pounding of  the  Scriptures  in  our  churches.  I find  that  some 
pastors  are  afraid  to  preach  on  this  subject,  though  they  feel 
that  nothing  is  more  urgently  required.  The  fact  is  that  their 
people,  for  want  of  scriptural  teachings  on  this  point,  have  be- 
come so  confirmed  in  covetousness  that  they  “ will  not  endure 
sound  doctrine.”  It  is  encouraging  to  find  some  Christians, 


450 


CHINA  AND  THE  CHINESE. 


and  I rejoice  to  believe  that  their  number  is  every  year  in- 
creasing, who  act  and  live  on  the  principle  that  they  are  stew- 
ards, and  solemnly  consecrate  to  God  such  a proportion  of 
their  incomes  as  they  are  not  ashamed  to  look  at  on  their  ac- 
count-books. 

But  let  us  ever  remember  that  while  God  makes  use  of 
His  Church  and  her  offerings,  still,  with  the  fullest  supply  of 
men  and  means,  Ave  would,  Avithout  the  presence  and  aid  of 
His  Spirit,  be  utterly  powerless  to  do  any  good,  or  to  convert 
one  soul. 

Fellow-Christians,  the  Master,  from  Avhom  you  have  re- 
ceived so  freely  of  spiritual  and  temporal  blessings,  calls  upon 
you  for  your  best  offerings  for  His  cause : your  sons,  your 
daughters,  your  gold  and  silver,  your  warmest  sympathies, 
and  earnest  prayers.  Shall  He  call  in  vain  ? 


THE  END. 


APPENDIX. 


SPEECH  OF  THE  HON.  ANSON  BURLINGAME,  THE  HEAD  OF 
THE  CHINESE  EMBASSY  TO  THE  WESTERN  POWERS,  DELIV- 
ERED IN  NEW  YORK  JUNE  23,  1868. 

Mr.  President,  and  Citizens  of  New  York, — Our  first  duty  is  to 
thank  you  for  this  cordial  greeting;  to  say  to  you  that  it  is  not  only  appre- 
ciated by  us,  but  that  it  will  be  appreciated  by  the  distant  people  whom  we 
represent ; to  thank  you  for  this  unanimous  expression  of  good-will  on  the 
part  of  the  great  city  of  New  York;  to  thank  you  that,  rising  above  all 
local  and  party  considerations,  you  have  given  a broad  and  generous  wel- 
come to  a movement  made  in  the  interests  of  all  mankind.  We  are  but 
the  humble  heralds  of  this  movement.  It  originated  beyond  the  bound- 
aries of  our  own  thoughts,  and  has  taken  dimensions  beyond  the  reach  of 
our  most  ardent  hopes.  That  East  which  men  have  sought  since  the  days 
of  Alexander  now  itself  seeks  the  West.  China,  emerging  from  the  mists 
of  time,  but  yesterday  suddenly  entered  your  Western  gates,  and  confronts 
you,  by  its  representatives,  here  to-night.  What  have  you  to  say  to  her? 
She  comes  with  no  menace  on  her  lips.  She  comes  with  the  great  doctrine 
of  Confucius,  uttered  two  thousand  three  hundred  years  ago,  “ Do  not  unto 
others  what  you  would  not  have  others  do  unto  you.’’  Will  you  not  re- 
spond with  the  more  positive  doctrine  of  Christianity — “ We  will  do  unto 
others  what  we  would  have  others  do  unto  us  ?”  She  comes  with  your  in- 
ternational law.  She  tells  you  that  she  is  willing  to  come  into  relations 
'according  to  it;  that  she  is  willing  to  abide  by  its  provisions;  that  she  is 
willing  to  take  its  obligations  for  its  privileges.  She  asks  you  to  forget 
your  ancient  prejudices,  to  abandon  your  assumptions  of  superiority,  to  sub- 
mit your  questions  with  her  as  she  proposes  to  submit  her  questions  with 
you — to  the  arbitrament  of  reason.  She  wishes  no  war ; she  asks  of  you 
not  to  interfere  in  her  internal  affairs;  she  asks  you  not  to  send  lecturers 
who  are  incompetent  men ; she  asks  that  you  will  respect  the  neutrality 
of  her  waters  and  the  integrity  of  her  territory  ; she  asks,  in  a word,  to  be 
left  perfectly  free  to  unfold  herself  precisely  in  that  form  of  civilization  of 
which  she  is  the  most  capable  to  judge.  She  asks  you  to  give  to  those 
treaties  which  were  made  under  the  pressure  of  war  a generous  and  Chris- 
tian construction.  Because  you  have  done  this,  because  the  Western  na- 
tions have  reversed  their  old  doctrine  of  force,  she  responds  ; and  in  propor- 
tion as  you  have  done  that,  in  proportion  as  you  have  expressed  your  good- 


452 


APPENDIX. 


will,  she  has  come  forth  to  meet  you.  And  I aver  that  there  is  no  spot  on 
this  earth  where  there  has  been  greater  progress  made  within  the  past  few 
years  than  in  the  empire  of  China.  She  has  extended  her  business  and 
reformed  her  revenue  system.  She  is  changing  her  military  and  naval  or- 
ganizations, and  is  establishing  a great  school,  where  modern  science  and 
the  foreign  languages  are  to  be  taught.  She  has  done  this  under  very 
adverse  circumstances.  She  has  done  this  after  a great  war,  lasting  through 
thirteen  years — a war  out  of  which  she  comes  with  no  national  debt.  You 
must  remember  how  dense  is  her  population,  and  how  difficult  it  is  to  in- 
troduce radical  changes  in  such  a country  as  that.  The  introduction  of 
your  own  steamers  threw  out  of  employment  one  hundred  thousand  junk- 
men, and  the  introduction  of  several  hundred  foreigners  into  her  civil  serv- 
ice embittered,  of  course,  the  ancient  native  employe's.  The  establishment 
of  a school  was  firmly  resisted  by  a party  led  by  one  of  the  greatest  men  of 
the  empire.  Yet,  in  spite  of  all  this,  the  present  government  of  China  has 
advanced  steadily  along  the  path  of  progress,  sustained,  it  is  true,  by  the 
enlightened  European  and  Western  Powers  now  at  Pekin,  and  guided 
largely  by  a modest  and  able  man — Mr.  Hart,  the  Inspector-General  of 
Customs,  at  the  head  of  the  foreign  employes  of  China.  Yet,  notwith- 
standing this  manifest  progress,  there  are  people  who  will  tell  you  that  China 
has  made  no  progress ; that  her  views  are  retrograde  ; and  they  tell  you  that 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  Western  Treaty  Powers  to  combine  for  the  purpose  of 
coercing  China  into  reforms  which  they  may  desire,  and  which  she  may  not 
desire,  to  undertake  to  say  that  these  people  have  no  rights  which  we  are 
bound  to  respect.  In  their  coarse  language  they  say,  “Take  her  by  the 
throat,”  using  the  tyrant’s  plea.  They  say  that  they  know  better  what 
China  wants  than  China  herself  does.  Not  only  do  they  desire  to  intro- 
duce new  reforms  born  of  their  own  interests  and  of  their  own  caprice,  but 
they  tell  you  that  the  present  dynasty  must  fall,  and  that  the  whole  struc- 
ture of  Chinese  civilization  must  be  overthrown.  ’ I know  that  these  views 
are  abhorred  by  the  governments  and  the  countries  from  which  they  come, 
but  they  are  far  away  from  their  countries.  They  are  active,  brave,  and 
unscrupulous,  and,  if  they  happen  to  be  officials,  it  is  in  their  power  to  com- 
plicate affairs,  and  to  involve  ultimately  their  distant  countries  in  war. 
Now  it  is  against  the  malign  spirit  of  this  tyrannical  element  that  this 
mission  was  sent  forth  to  the  Christian  world.  It  was  sent  forth  that 
China  might  have  her  difficulties  stated.  That  I happen  to  be  at  the 
head  of  it  is,  perhaps,  more  an  accident  than  any  design.  It  is  perhaps 
because  I had  been  longer  there  than  my  colleagues.  It  was  because  I 
was  about  to  leave  it.  It  was  because,  also — and  probably  more  than  all — 
because  my  humble  name  was  associated  with  the  establishment  of  the  co- 
operative policy  which,  co-operating  with  abler  men  than  myself,  was  estab- 
lished not  many  years  ago.  It  is  to  sustain  that  policy — which  has  received 
the  warm  approval  of  all  the  great  Treat}-  Powers,  and  which  is  cherished 
by  China — that  we  are  sent  forth;  and  It  is  in  behalf  of  that  generous 
policy,  founded  upon  principles  of  eternal  justice,  that  I would  rally  the 
strongest  thing  on  this  earth — the  enlightened  public  opinion  of  the  world. 
Missions  and  men  may  pass  away,  but  the  principles  of  eternal  justice  will 
stand.  I desire  that  the  autonomy  of  China  may  he  preserved  ; that  her 
independence  may  be  maintained ; that  she  may  have  equality,  and  that 


APPENDIX. 


453 


she  may  dispense  equal  privileges  to  all  the  nations.  If  the  opposite 
school  is  to  prevail,  if  you  are  to  use  coercion  against  that  great  people, 
then  who  is  to  exercise  the  coercion  ? Whose  forces  are  you  to  use  ? 
Whose  views  are  you  to  establish?  You  see,  the  very  attempt  to  carry  out 
any  such  tyrannical  policy  would  involve  not  only  China,  but  would  involve 
you  in  bloody  wars  with  each  other.  There  are  men  of  that  tyrannical 
school  who  say  that  China  is  not  fit  to  sit  at  the  council-board  of  the  na- 
tions, who  call  them  barbarians,  who  attack  them  on  all  occasions  with  a 
bitter  and  unrelenting  spirit.  These  things  I utterly  deny.  I say,  on  the"  - 
contrary,  that  that  is  a great  and  noble  people.  It  has  all  the  elements  of 
a splendid  nationality.  It  has  the  most  numerous  people  on  the  face  of 
the  globe ; it  is  the  most  homogeneous  people  in  the  world ; its  language 
is  spoken  by  more  human  beings  than  any  other  in  the  world,  and  it  is 
written  in  the  rock  ; it  is  a country  where  there  is  a greater  unification  of 
thought  than  any  other  country  in  the  world  ; it  is  a country  where  the 
maxims  of  the  great  sages,  coming  down  memorized,  have  permeated  the 
whole  people  until  their  knowledge  is  rather  an  instinct  than  an  acquire- 
ment. It  is  a people  loyal  while  living,  and  whose  last  prayer  when  dying 
is  to  sleep  in  the  sacred  soil  of  their  fathers.  It  is  a land  of  scholars  and 
of  schools  — a land  of  books,  from  the  smallest  pamphlet  up  to  volumi- 
nous encyclopedias.  It  is  a land,  sir,  as  you  have  said,  where  the  privi- 
leges are  common ; it  is  a land  without  caste,  for  they  destroyed  their 
feudal  system  two  thousand  one  hundred  years  ago,  and  they  built  up 
their  great  structure  of  civilization  on  the  great  idea  that  the  people  are 
the  source  of  power.  That  idea  was  uttered  by  Mencius  more  than 
two  thousand  years  ago,  and  it  was  old  when  he  uttered  it.  The  power 
flows  forth  from  that  people  into  practical  government  through  the  co-oper- 
ative system,  and  they  make  scholarship  a test  of  merit.  I say  it  is  a 
great,  a polite,  a patient,  a sober,  and  an  industrious  people  ; and  it  is  such 
a people  as  this  that  the  bitter  boor  would  exclude  from  the  council-hall  o 
the  nations.  It  is  such  a nation  as  this  that  the  tyrannical  element  would 
put  under  its  ban.  They  say  that  all  these  people  (a  third  of  the  human 
race)  must  become  the  weak  wards  of  the  West ; wards  of  nations  not  so 
populous  as  many  of  their  provinces ; wards  of  people  who  are  younger 
than  their  newest  village  in  Manchuria.  I do  not  mean  to  say  that  the 
Chinese  are  perfect ; far  from  it.  They  have  their  faults,  their  pride,  and 
their  prejudices  like  other  people.  These  are  profound,  and  they  must  be 
overcome.  They  have  their  conceits  like  other  people,  and  they  must  be 
done  away  ; but  they  are  not  to  be  removed  by  talking  to  them  with  can- 
non, by  telling  them  that  they  are  feeble  and  weak,  and  that  they  are  bar- 
barians. No ; China  has  been  cut  off  by  her  position  from  the  rest  of  the 
world.  She  has  been  separated  from  it  by  limitless  deserts  and  broad  oceans. 
But  now,  when  the  views  of  men  expand,  we  behold  the  very  globe  itself 
diminishing  in  size  ; now,  when  science  has  dissipated  the  desert,  and  when 
it  has  narrowed  the  ocean,  we  find  that  China,  seeing  another  civilization 
on  every  side,  has  her  eyes  wide  open  to  the  situation.  She  sees  Russia 
on  the  north,  Europe  on  the  west,  and  America  on  the  east ; she  sees  a 
cloud  of  sail  on  her  coast ; she  sees  mighty  steamers  coming  from  every 
quarter ; she  feels  the  spark  from  the  electric  telegraph  falling  hot  upon 
her,  and  she  rouses  herself,  not  in  anger,  but  for  argument.  She  finds 


454 


APPENDIX. 


that  by  not  being  in  a position  to  compete  with  other  nations  for  so  long 
a time  that  she  lias  lost  ground  ; she  comprehends  very  well  that  she 
must  come  into  relations  with  those  civilizations  which  are  pressing  all 
around  her  ; and  feeling  that,  she  does  not  wait,  but  comes  out  to  you,  and 
extends  to  you  her  hand.  She  tells  you  she  is  ready  to  take  upon  her  an- 
cient civilization  the  graft  of  your  civilization ; that  she  is  ready  to  take 
back  her  own  inventions,  with  all  their  developments  ; that  she  is  willing 
to  trade  with  you,  to  buy  of  you,  to  sell  to  you,  to  help  you  strike  off  the 
shackles  from  trade.  She  invites  your  merchants,  she  invites  your  mission- 
aries, and  tells  them  to  plant  the  shining  cross  on  every  hill  and  in  every 
valley,  for  she  is  hospitable  to  fair  argument.  She  offers  you  almost  free 
trade  to-day.  Holding  the  great  staples  of  the  earth — tea  and  silk,  she 
charges  you  scarcely  any  tariff  on  the  exports  you  send  out  to  exchange  for 
them.  She  is  willing  to  meet  the  interior  questions  which  are  arising  now 
as  to  transit  dues ; and  if  you  will  only  have  patience  with  her  and  right 
reason  on  your  side,  she  will  settle  these  to  your  satisfaction.  The  country 
is  open ; you  may  travel  and  trade  where  you  like.  What  complaint  have 
you  to  make  of  her  ? Show  her,  I say,  fair  play  ; exhibit  that  to  her,  and 
you  will  bless  the  toiling  millions  of  the  world.  That  trade,  which  has  in 
my  own  day  in  China  risen  from  eighty-two  millions  to  three  hundred  mil- 
lions, is  but  a tithe  of  the  enormous  trade  that  may  be  carried  on  with  China 
in  the  future.  Let  her  alone,  give  her  her  independence ; let  her  develop 
herself  in  her  own  time  and  in  her  own  way.  She  has  no  hostility  to  you. 
Let  her  do  this,  and  she  will  initiate  a movement  which  will  be  felt  in  ev- 
ery workshop  in  the  civilized  world.  She  says  now,  “ Send  us  your  wheat, 
lumber,  gold,  silver,  goods  from  everywhere.  We  will  take  as  many  of 
them  as  we  can  ; we  will  give  you  back  our  tea,  silk,  and  free  labor,  which 
we  have  sent  so  largely  out  into  the  world,  which  is  overflowing  upon  Siam, 
the  British  possessions,  Singapore,  Manilla,  Peru,  Cuba,  Australia,  and  Cal- 
ifornia. What  she  asks  is,  that  you  will  be  as  kind  to  her  people  as  she  is 
to  yours.  She  wishes  simply  that  you  will  do  justice.  She  is  willing  not 
only  to  exchange  goods  with  you,  but  to  exchange  thoughts  ; she  is  willing 
to  give  you  her  intellectual  civilization  for  your  material  civilization.  Let 
her  alone,  and  the  caravans  toward  the  North  and  Russia  will  swarm  larger 
than  they  are  now.  Let  her  alone,  and  the  great  steamers  of  the  “Penin- 
sular and  Oriental  Co.”  and  the  “ Messagerie  Imperiale  ” may  multiply  their 
coming;  let  her  alone,  and  that  great  line  which  is  the  pride  of  New  York 
— the  Pacific  Mail — may  increase,  or  as  many  other  lines  as  you  choose  to 
form,  may  increase  their  tonnage  tenfold,  and  they  will  still  have  to  leave 
their  freight  uncarried,  as  at  present,  on  the  wharf  at  Hong-kong  and  Yoko- 
hama. The  imagination  kindles  at  the  future  which  may  be,  and  will  be, 
if  you  will  be  just  and  fair  to  China. 


APPENDIX. 


455 


THE  LATE  TREATY  WITH  CHINA,  SUPPLEMENTARY  TO  THE 
TREATY  OF  1858. 

Art.  1.  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  China,  being  of  the  opinion  that 
in  making  concessions  to  the  citizens  or  subjects  of  foreign  powers  of  the 
privilege  of  residing  on  certain  tracts  of  land,  or  resorting  to  certain  waters 
of  that  empire  for  the  purposes  of  trade,  he  has  by  no  means  relinquished  his 
right  of  eminent  domain  or  dominion  over  the  said  land  and  waters,  hereby 
agrees  that  no  such  concession  or  grant  shall  be  construed  to  give  to  any 
power  or  party  which  may  be  at  war  with  or  hostile  to  the  United  States 
the  right  to  attack  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  or  their  property  within 
the  said  lands  or  waters ; and  the  United  States,  for  themselves,  hereby 
agree  to  abstain  from  offensively  attacking  the  citizens  or  subjects  of  any 
power,  or  party,  or  their  property,  with  which  they  may  be  at  war,  on  any 
such  tract  of  land  or  waters  of  the  said  empire  ; but  nothing  in  this  article 
shall  be  construed  to  prevent  the  United  States  from  resisting  an  attack 
by  any  hostile  power  or  party  upon  their  citizens  or  their  property.  It  is 
further  agreed,  that  if  any  right  or  interest  in  any  tract  of  land  in  China 
has  been  or  shall  hereafter  be  granted  by  the  Government  of  China  to  the 
United  States  or  their  citizens  for  purposes  of  trade  or  commerce,  that  grant 
shall  in  no  event  be  construed  to  divest  the  Chinese  authorities  of  their  right 
of  jurisdiction  over  persons  and  property  within  said  tract  of  land,  except  so 
far  as  that  right  may  have  been  expressly  relinquished  by  treaty. 

Art.  2.  The  United  States  of  America  and  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of 
China,  believing  that  the  safety  and  prosperity  of  commerce  will  thereby 
best  be  promoted,  agree,  that  any  privilege  or  immunity  in  respect  to  trade 
or  navigation  within  the  Chinese  dominions  which  may  not  have  been  stip- 
ulated for  by  treaty  shall  be  subject  to  the  discretion  of  the  Chinese  Gov- 
ernment, and  may  be  regulated  by  it  accordingly,  but  not  in  a manner  or 
spirit  incompatible  with  the  treaty  stipulations  of  the  parties. 

Art.  3.  The  Emperor  of  China  shall  have  the  right  to  appoint  consuls  at 
ports  of  the  United  States,  who  shall  enjoy  the  same  privileges  and  immu- 
nities as  those  which  are  enjoyed  by  public  law  and  treaty  in  the  United 
States  by  the  consuls  of  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  or  either  of  them. 

Art.  4.  The  twenty-ninth  article  of  the  treaty  of  the  18th  of  June,  1858, 
having  stipulated  for  the  exemption  of  Christian  citizens  of  the  United 
States  and  Chinese  converts  from  persecution  in  China  on  account  of  their 
faith,  it  is  further  agreed,  that  citizens  of  the  United  States  in  China  of  ev- 
ery religious  persuasion,  and  Chinese  subjects  in  the  United  States,  shall 
enjoy  entire  liberty  of  conscience,  and  shall  be  exempt  from  all  disability 
or  persecution  on  account  of  their  religious  faith  or  worship  in  either  coun- 
try. Cemeteries  for  sepulture  of  the  dead  of  whatever  nativity  or  nation- 
ality shall  be  held  in  respect,  and  free  from  disturbance  or  profanation. 

Art.  5.  The  United  States  of  America  and  the  Emperor  of  China  cor- 
dially recognize  the  inherent  and  inalienable  right  of  man  to  change  bis 
home  and  his  allegiance,  and  also  the  mutual  advantages  of  the  free  migra- 
tion and  immigration  of  their  citizens  and  subjects  respectively  from  the  one 
country  to  the  other  for  purposes  of  curiosity,  trade,  or  as  permanent  resi- 


456 


APPENDIX. 


dents.  The  high  contracting  parties,  therefore,  join  in  reprobating  any 
other  than  an  entirely  voluntary  immigration  for  these  purposes.  They 
consequently  agree  to  pass  laws  making  it  a penal  offense  for  a citizen  of  the 
United  States  or  a Chinese  subject  to  take  Chinese  subjects  either  to  the 
United  States  or  to  any  foreign  country,  or  for  a Chinese  subject  or  a citi- 
zen of  the  United  States  to  take  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  China  or  to 
any  other  foreign  country  without  their  free  and  voluntary  consent  respect- 
ively. 

Art.  C.  Citizens  of  the  United  States  visiting  or  residing  in  China  shall 
enjoy  the  same  privileges,  immunities,  or  exemptions  in  respect  to  travel  or 
residence  as  may  there  be  enjoyed  by  the  citizens  or  subjects  of  the  most 
favored  nation ; and,  reciprocally,  Chinese  subjects  visiting  or  residing  in 
the  United  States  shall  enjoy  the  same  privileges,  immunities,  and  exemp- 
tions in  respect  to  travel  or  residence  as  may  be  enjoyed  by  the  citizens  or 
subjects  of  the  most  favored  nation  ; but  nothing  herein  contained  shall  be 
held  to  confer  naturalization  upon  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  in  Chi- 
na, nor  upon  the  subjects  of  China  in  the  United  States. 

Art.  7.  Citizens  of  the  United  States  shall  enjoy  all  the  privileges  of  the 
public  educational  institutions  under  the  control  of  the  Government  of 
China,  and,  reciprocally,  Chinese  subjects  shall  enjoy  all  the  privileges  of  the 
public  educational  institutions  under  the  control  of  the  Government  of  the 
United  States  which  are  enjoyed  in  the  respective  countries  by  the  citizens 
or  subjects  of  the  most  favored  nations.  The  citizens  of  the  United  States 
may  freely  establish  and  maintain  schools  within  the  empire  of  China  at 
those  places  where  foreigners  are  by  treaty  permitted  to  reside,  and,  recip- 
rocally, Chinese  subjects  may  enjoy  the  same  privileges  and  immunities  in 
the  United  States. 

Art.  8.  The  United  States,  always  disclaiming  and  discouraging  all  prac- 
tices of  unnecessary  dictation  and  intervention  by  one  nation  in  the  affairs  or 
domestic  administration  of  another,  do  hereby  freely  disclaim  any  intention 
or  right  to  intervene  in  the  domestic  administration  of  China  in  regard  to  the 
construction  of  railroads,  telegraphs,  or  other  material  internal  improvements. 
On  the  other  hand,  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of  China  reserves  to  himself  the 
right  to  decide  the  time  and  manner  and  circumstances  of  introducing  such 
improvements  within  his  dominions.  With  this  mutual  understanding,  it  is 
agreed  by  the  contracting  parties,  that  if  at  any  time  hereafter  His  Imperial 
Majesty  shall  determine  to  construct  or  cause  to  be  constructed  works  of  the 
character  mentioned  within  the  empire,  and  shall  make  application  to  the 
United  States  or  any  other  Western  power  for  facilities  to  carry  out  that 
policy,  the  United  States  will,  in  that  case,  designate  and  authorize  suitable 
engineers  to  be  employed  by  the  Chinese  Government,  and  will  recommend 
to  other  nations  an  equal  compliance  with  such  application,  the  Chinese 
Government  in  that  case  protecting  such  engineers  in  their  persons  and 
property,  and  paying  them  a reasonable  compensation  for  their  services. 


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